www.minbaralhurriyya.

org
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by
any means without the prior permission of Minbaralhurriyya Team.

www.arab-csr.org
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by
any means without the prior permission of Arab Center for Scientific Research
and Humane Studies Team.


.
.

. :

.
.
"

" .

.
"
" .
" .
"
"
"

.
.
.
1783 "
" .
" 1788

" .
2

"

" .

-
"
" .

) ( 1821
:

.
.

...

.
...
!

. "

" .
3

- -

. .

.
.

1815

.


. . .
) ( "
"
.
.


.

1918

.
) (


.
4

.




. "

) (1865-1804
. .

. 1864
.
1973 ) ( :
"

" .
1835 ) ( .
.

.
.


. "

"

..





.

.

-

-



.

.


.
7

1850

) (
.

.


.

.
...

" - .
" .

" .
" .

.
9

 *1

.


.

...


.

1894 1802
10

) ( 1865
. . .
-

. 9 )( 1900


.
"
"

.



.
.

.

.

11

.

.

. .

.


.

.
.

.
) (
.

.

12

 )( )(
)( .


.
.
.
" "
.


.

" " " "

:
" .

" .

. "

" .

.
.


. .
.

.


13

.
.
.

14

) : :

( ) ( .

. 1973
" .
"

. -
- .

-
- .
.

" " 1951
.

15

.
.

- -

(1) :

"

" - . ) (2

" "

.
" " " " .

-

. -

- )
(

.


16

. -

" )
"
( " " ) ( .
.

: .
) " "(

:

. " " .

- -
.

)( )(
.

" " .

. " "

" "
- .

.

17


" " .

. -

-

.
.

.
-

" "
...

" " .

- -

- .

- -

: "
" .

18

-
.

.
-

.
.

:
)

(
.

) ( ...

.
-
.

.
19

 - .
.

...
.

" "
.

.
.



...




:



.

.

) " "( .

"" (1) :

-
) (2
20

.
" "

.

.
. .

- .

.

:
.
:
-

.


.

21

) : (

) : ( .
.

.
.
.
- -

. .

: .

.

(1) :

-
) (2

22


) (3
) (4

.

.

.

. .

.


.

-
-
23

" "

. "

"

.
- -

.

.





.

24

.
.

.
.

.
.



.

.
.

" "

.
.
- -
.
25

.
.
.
- -

.

.

.

- .

26


.

. - 370
7.5

-
.

.
.

.


.

.
.

27

.


.

.
- -
.



:

.


.
.

.
.
- -

" "
.

" "

28

" " .
-
: .

" " " " .

- .

-



.

.
.

.
- - .
.

.


.



29

.
.
.


.

30