Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Title:
Abstract…………………………………………………………………..3
Introduction……………………………………………………………..5
Methodology…………………………………………………………….10
Results……………………………………………………………………12
Discussion……………………………………………………………….15
3-Natural Gas………………………………………………………………20
Conclusion……………………………………………………………….24
References……………………………………………………………....26
Appendix A……………………………………………………………....29
The energy sector in Lebanon was found to contribute 85% of all carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions and 96% of all sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions in the
country [2]. The Zouk power plant is a major cause of environmental impacts,
as it is known that thermoelectric power plants pose a serious problem for the
environment, which is the dispersal of ashes from their dumps. In addition,
the main emissions at thermal power plants are (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NO),
sulfur oxides (SO), and so on… These emissions are known to be the culprit
in heating up the atmosphere and resulting in the current environmental crisis
known as global warming.
The consumption of electricity is not harmful to the environment per se, but
the production of this electric energy is a big problem for almost every country
in the world due to harmful gases emitted by the power plants and their
environmental impact on people. For example, a study done on the
environmental and health impact of the “Sostanj”, which is one of the biggest
thermal power plants in Slovenia, located in the bottom of “Saleska” valley,
has shown that this power plant has very negative influences on the
environment and human health such as damaging forests and contaminated
Fine particles in the atmosphere such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxide (NOX) are formed through chemical reactions in thermal power plants,
where the energy production is taking place. Also, these plants directly emit
particle matter (PM) as well as gases that undergo chemical reactions forming
the fine particles stated above. SO2, NOX and PM emitted in the sky affect the
concentration of PM by increasing its ambient concentration less than 2.5
microns in diameter (PM2.5). An increased mortality from cardiopulmonary
diseases, lung cancer [6] and numerous other respiratory illnesses and
associated morbidity [7] has been consistently linked with the exposure to
The use of FGD lead to reductions in disease burdens and lead to a mortality
differential of around 4600 deaths annually [8] which shows the effectiveness
of FGD for reductions in disease burdens. In addition, the cardiopulmonary
and lung cancer deaths associated with these power plants were in the
thousands where FGD technologies were in fact absent from plants.
Therefore, the use of air pollution controls in power plants is important in order
to drop the mortality caused by the pollutants emitted from these plants,
otherwise these power plants contribute significantly to the burden of death
and disease in the areas in which they are located.
Thermal power plants in India are also facing problems concerning gaseous
emissions, particle matter, fly ash and other trace atmospheric gases due to
the use of poor quality of coal, which adds to environmental impacts and
many hazardous diseases like Asthma, Tuberculosis, and so on… Thus, the
air quality is affected since many pollutants are in the sky such as carbon
monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxide (NO2) and Ozone (O3),
also known phytotoxic elements or phytotoxicants. In addition, India’s
population, second in the world, has grown progressively from 300 million in
1947 to more than a billion today [10], which affects the lifestyle, and
accelerates the energy demand and the energy consumption as well. As
expected, per capita usage of energy in India will increase to almost 40 million
BTU (British thermal unit) by the year 2010 [10]. The unhealthy increase of
the population, in addition to the use of fossil fuels and the limited use of
India’s thermal power plants, such as “Chandrapur” thermal power plant run
on coal. A comparison has been done between Chandrapur and “Ohio” a
thermal power plant located in the US and the results have shown that the
calorific value of Chandrapur coal is only half of that of Ohio coal due to the
poor quality of Indian coal [10] and its high ash content (35-50%).
Thermal power plants in India generate almost 80% of total generated power
for the nation [10]. These plants use diesel oil, as does the Zouk plant in
Lebanon. They also use furnace oil, which results in lower emissions. The
use of diesel oil has increased by 7.54% in India [10]. However, in addition to
the main emissions (CO, NO, SO, etc…) from thermal power plants, there are
some inorganic particles such as fly ash, soot (black carbon) and other trace
gas species, which are responsible for atmospheric acidity, heating up the
atmosphere and producing harmful health impacts. The most important gas
emitted by the thermal plants is Nitric Oxide (NO), since the formation of
photochemical smog is a result of this gas. In addition, this gas contributes to
the acidity in the atmosphere as well as to the formation of tropospheric
ozone, which is one of the main causes for global warming. However,
population exposure to these polluting gases over the entire Indian region
needs to be studied. Furthermore, analyses of energy activities in India, such
as emissions and pollutants will help in decreasing the impact of these
emissions on human and plant health, and on the environment.
In Mexico, emissions from power plants and air pollution are major causes of
environmental impacts. High Sulfur fuel oil is burned to generate electricity in
one of the largest power plants in Mexico, “Tuxpan” [11]. An estimation of
the health impacts due to air pollution from Tuxpan has found that emissions
from this power plant reach annual average concentrations of 0.12 µg m−3 for
Sulfates PM2.5, 0.64 µg m−3 for Nitrates PM2.5 and 3.09 µg m−3 for SO2 within a
120 km radius of the plant [11]. These concentrations are dangerous and
could result in environmental and health impacts for the local population.
Therefore, such issues have to be considered while analyzing different
electricity generation methods, and air pollution control technologies must be
used in such areas.
However, in studying and analyzing the future energy supply, possible health
hazards are mainly discussed in nuclear power plants, whereas less attention
is paid to the health impacts of thermoelectric power plants. Realistically, the
risk of cancer among workers in thermoelectric power plants has increased in
the last decades [16], which calls for additional studies of power plant
workers, and takes into consideration that electromagnetic fields, could have
some environmental and health impacts [17]. In addition to electromagnetic
fields, some chemical pollutants such as Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs), are generated from thermoelectric plants. They also have health
impacts on the population since they enter through the food chain, specifically
in aquatic species [18]. They also affect people through ongoing
environmental exposure by inhaling polluted air.
The two main thermoelectric power plants in Lebanon, Zouk and Jieh, release
good quantities of PCBs (PCB-oil) into the environment. This will affect the
neighboring population exposed to some of the persistent organic pollutants
(POPs), and may result in serious health impacts (e.g.: skin irritation,
respiratory effects, fatigue, blurred vision, headaches, and dizziness) [18].
Furthermore, ominous brown smog can be seen over the capital and around
the Zouk plant. This is uncontrolled and is on the rise due to the limited
permanent measurements of pollutants’ concentrations in the air and because
of the lack of statistics. In Lebanon, near these two power plants, the quality
of the air is extremely polluted due to the use of poor quality fuel that is
This study aims to provide data on the health impacts of the Zouk plant and to
provide a detailed study of possible solutions to the problem. These solutions
will be discussed in terms of their environmental benefits, technical knowhow,
economic feasibility and legislative issues involved.
500 questionnaires were collected from each of the study and control areas.
Selection of households was random, with about 25% of households refusing
to participate in the study. Once completed, numbers of respondents who
had answered yes to items were tallied and the results were demonstrated in
graphs including both numbers and percentages. A full statistical analysis of
the results was not done, as the main objective of the study was to show that
disease incidence is higher in areas proximal to the Zouk plant, and to focus
on practical and technical solutions for this problem. It is also noteworthy that
the attempt to control for smoking was not feasible as nearly all
households/individuals in households were exposed to smoking on a regular
basis.
RESULTS
Results indicate that respondents from the study area suffer from all three
diseases (asthma, lung cancer and emphysema) to a significantly greater
degree than respondents from the control area. In addition, residents of the
Zouk area also suffer to a greater degree from other pulmonary diseases
(26.60% versus 12.40% from the control area), and other medical problems
such as cancers, skin infections, headache, dry cough, allergies, and so on.
Figure.1 shows the rate of asthma incidence in both the study and control
areas.
500.00
400.00
300.00
Households
200.00
100.00
0.00
Zouk
Area
Control
Area
Yes
148.00
59.00
No
352.00
441.00
Figure.1 Asthma Incidence
When asked whether anyone in the household has been diagnosed with
asthma (item 7 in the questionnaire), 29.60% of respondents residing in the
Zouk area responded yes, compared with only 11.80% in the control area.
Residents of the Zouk area are also more likely to be on medications for
asthma, to have had an asthma attack in the last 12 months, and to suffer
from allergies.
450.00
400.00
350.00
300.00
250.00
Households
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
Zouk
Area
Control
Area
Yes
177.00
87.00
No
323.00
413.00
Figure.2 Lung Cancer Incidence
When asked whether anyone in the household had ever been diagnosed with
lung cancer (item 9 on the questionnaire), 35% residing in the Zouk area
responded positively, compared with only 17.40% from the control area. In
addition, residents of the Zouk area were almost 3 times as likely to have
passed away as a result of lung cancer.
Figure.3 shows the rate of emphysema incidence in both the Zouk and control
areas.
500.00
400.00
300.00
Households
200.00
100.00
0.00
Zouk
Area
Control
Area
Yes
131.00
77.00
No
369.00
423.00
500.00
400.00
Households
300.00
200.00
100.00
0.00
Zouk
Area
Control
Area
Yes
173.00
74.00
No
327.00
426.00
Figure.4 Other Medical Problems
Figure 5 shows the rate of other pulmonary diseases in both the study and
control areas.
450.00
400.00
350.00
300.00
Households
250.00
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
Zouk
Area
Control
Area
Yes
133.00
62.00
No
367.00
438.00
Figure.5 Other Pulmonary Diseases
Overall, residents from the Zouk area were 2-3 times more likely to report
both pulmonary and other medical problems than residents outside the Zouk
area.
As the results show, the Zouk plant is affecting the health of the neighboring
population by polluting the environment. Harmful gases emitted in the
atmosphere from this plant are likely to increase annually due to the growing
energy demand. There are a lot of possible methods that could minimize the
impact of the Zouk power plant on both the environment and the population.
Taking into consideration the financial situation of the Lebanese government
(public dept is about US$40 billion), many such solutions are likely to become
limited. For example, relocating the Zouk plant is not a viable option due to
unavailability of alternative areas and to cost. Thus, the government needs to
use new and cost-effective techniques while also enhancing the capacity of
the electricity generated to meet the ever-increasing demand. At the
beginning of 2007, a power supply capacity of 2,100 MW was installed by
EDL, of which 1,900 MW consisted of thermal power plant capacity [1].
However, the peak demand for electricity in 2006 had already reached
approximately 2600 MW [20]. Due to several events, the available supply has
been reduced in the past two years. The capacity of the Zouk plant is
currently around 650 MW of which 465 MW are available [1]. The plant
consists of four units that operate all the time with low fuel efficiency covering
at best 60% of peak demand for electricity in the area. In addition, both
technical and non-technical losses are high causing significant increases in
cost since the plant is already operating at peak load without meeting the
demand required. Therefore, in order to meet electricity demands and to
reduce harmful emissions, several actions must be taken, such as reduction
in technical losses and rehabilitation of the plant, in addition to substitution of
fuel through the use of natural gas. Furthermore, the fuel oil used in the plant
known as “RFO 6”, is one of the most polluting petroleum by-products since it
is highly concentrated in sulfur in order to enhance its combustion. Therefore,
since filtration techniques are still missing, a revision of the fuel specifications
must be conducted.
Since the energy sector in Lebanon contributes 85% of all CO2 emissions in
the country [2], and yet no resources can substitute fossil fuels while
increasing efficiency of power plants, then there must be a reduction in CO2
emissions without decreasing the efficiency of the system. There are
currently a lot of methods leading to reductions in CO2 emissions, such as
renewable energy technologies e.g. wind-power, solar energy, biomass, and
so on. Although these are not yet fully viable alternatives to fossil fuels, they
offer significant socio-economic benefits. In the mean time, the process of
CO2 separation is a must for thermal power plants in order to reduce
1.a) Carbon capture and storage consists of capturing carbon dioxide (CO2)
from fossil fuel fired power plants, at a certain temperature, and storing it
underground or in the sea in order to avoid its entry into the atmosphere,
almost without efficiency loss. There are many processes for separating the
carbon dioxide e.g. chemical, physical, both chemical and physical and
cryogenic separation [21]. The mixed absorption method (physical and
chemical) is likely to suit large power plants along with the choice of the best
solvent. For example “Carbonate Looping” is one method that requires a
temperature of 600 Celsius, and in which a reactive lime (CaO) could be used
as a solvent in the flue gas. The CaO reacts with the CO2 forming calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) and releasing heat [22]:
After the endothermic reaction B, new separation takes place between the
regenerated lime and the carbon dioxide, and then (CaO) will be recycled to
the carbonator and reused [23] in the carbonate looping cycle. After heat
transfer to the air flow and steam and water, the flue gas nearly free of (CO2)
will be discharged into the atmosphere and the flue gas rich in (CO2) will be
stored [23]. The major components of the power plants would be combustion
chamber and heat exchangers if we consider the method of Carbonate
Looping for an existing plant with minimal changes.
The Zouk is a fuel power plant with a capacity of 650 MW. Taking into
consideration the technical and non-technical losses, the net power of the
plant would be about 465 MW. Therefore, we can assume that the plant will
produce 2.5 million tons of CO2 annually [21]. Thus, the total quantity of CO2
to be stored underground would be 75 million tons in 30 years. Following ISO
standards, the fuel oil burned at the plant should be an international coal with
16% ash, 2% moisture and 1% sulfur. Some equipment is required for carbon
dioxide separation:
The distance between the power plant and the CO2 storage site must be as
short as possible in order to decrease cost of transport and to limit
environmental risks as well. For the Zouk plant, both transporting and storing
CO2, are likely to be cost efficient with low environmental risks since the plant
is located exactly on the sea. Therefore, the storage site would be an
offshore storage under the Mediterranean Sea, which means that the storage
In order to find the cost of the electricity generated with CO2 capture, costs of
transport and storage should be taken into consideration. Thus, 2.5 million
ton/year (t/y) of CO2 are stored under the Mediterranean Sea. The power
plant has an expected output of 465 MW. Assuming that the net efficiency of
the plant is around 33%, then the power plant net output would be 186 MW.
Thus 136 (t/h) of CO2 are emitted from the plant. The cost of CO2 avoided is
about US$70/ton. The cost of MWh from the Zouk plant with carbon capture
systems would be around US$98/MWh (equivalent to 9.8 US¢/KWh). These
costs are slightly lower than those of renewable energy technologies (solar or
wind energy), which also reduce CO2 emissions. It might also be possible to
reduce this figure as several factors may be variable such as: distance from
the power plant to storage site, characteristics of reservoir used for storage,
location of the storage site, and so on. Thermal power plants in Lebanon,
without carbon capture, give a power supply with a cost to the consumer
around (9.8 US¢/KWh), which is in fact too low to cover EDL’s costs [1]. In
relation with service quality and regional standards, Lebanon’s electricity tariff
is high. Although, the average tariff for industry consumers is 10 US¢/KWh,
its actual cost is 21 US¢/KWh at peak hours, which increases the losses of
EDL to about US$20 million per year [1]. These economical losses are mainly
a result of the high technical and non-technical losses at this plant.
Comparing the price per kWh between the power plant with and without
carbon separation, we find that the efficiency of the plant did not change. The
price with carbon capture is greater than the Levelized cost (6.58 US¢/KWh)
from plants without carbon capture. Therefore, with carbon capture, the same
amount of electricity is generated and has the same cost per kWh as the
current tariff, with limited emissions in carbon dioxide.
This project is feasible for the Lebanese Government, since US$ 117.5 million
were estimated by the Government’s Public Investment Program to
rehabilitate the plant [1], and the cost of the entire project is estimated to be
US$ 100 million only [20]. In addition, in order to maintain a good
maintenance of the plant, a further US$ 100 million would be needed
annually. The amount of electricity generated would be 1830 GWh/year with
fuel savings of 67,293 tons/year. Therefore, an additional capacity of 87 MW
could be provided from this plant once rehabilitated while achieving savings of
14.3% on fuel consumption per kWh.
3) Natural Gas
In March 2005, a natural gas pipeline between Syria and Lebanon was
completed [25]. This pipeline links the Beddawi power plant in northern
Lebanon to the Baniyas plant in Syria. Since the pipeline is near completion,
it is feasible for the Zouk plant to transport its natural gas from the Beddawi
plant instead of transporting it from outside. Therefore a domestic pipeline
should be constructed to link the Zouk plant to the Beddawi plant, with low
cost, since the distance between these two plants is relatively short (<70 Km).
This pipeline could be extended in the future in order to link the Baddawi plant
from the north to the Zahrani plant in the south. The Syrian natural gas will
flow into Lebanon providing 53 million cubic feet per day [25], with the
possibility to increase eventually. Furthermore, in order to meet the demands,
an additional natural gas pipeline should be implemented. This pipeline would
be initially from Egypt, since “The Arab Pipeline”, a pipeline that starts from
Egypt and passes through Jordan, Syria and Lebanon is under construction
after a multilateral agreement between these four Arab countries.
Approximately 100-150 MW of electricity supply are expected from this
pipeline. Combined Cycles Gas Turbines (CCGTs) will be installed and
designed to operate on natural gas. In general, (CCGTs) can also operate on
gas-oil, but with the same energy input the price of gas-oil is almost double of
that of natural gas [1].
Since the cost of a natural gas pipeline is $US 1 million per Km [26], and the
distance from the Baddawi plant to the Zahrani plant is approximately 200
Km, therefore, the pipeline investment cost is approximately $US 200 million.
Assuming that the natural gas pipeline is completed to the Baddawi plant,
therefore, with a capital investment of $US200 million, the completion of the
pipeline for both the Zouk and the Zahrani plants can be ensured. The mean
prices for oil and natural gas are US$ 80/barrel and US$ 7 million/MBTU
respectively (1BTU=1500J) [27]. Assuming that the average of electricity
supply tariff from oil is (9.4 US¢/kWh), after switching to natural gas the
savings expected are substantially greater than the capital investment and
annual maintenance costs. The average of electricity supply tariff from
natural gas would be within a range from US$ 4 to US10$ per MBTU [28],
around (7.22 US¢/kWh) [1]. The oil power plants are one of the most
expensive options for generating electricity. Plants with natural gas are less
costly than oil plants. This alternative source of energy would satisfy the
electricity demand by increasing the efficiency of the system while reducing
CO2 emissions, thus leading to savings of US$92 – US$500 per ton of CO2
Implementation of (SWH) systems can greatly impact the Zouk power plant
both economically and environmentally. The choice of the system must be
suitable with the area, and has to be good in terms of price and quality (not
the cheapest system nor the best one). A 4-m2 system, the Kypros by
Siemens, would be convenient for the area, with a 200 L hot water tank and
two panels installed. The cost of the system including installation is US$900
[32]. This solar heater produces (3230 kWh/yr.) [31]. Therefore, taking into
consideration that electric heaters produce (6480 kWh/yr.), and that (SWH)
saves 80% of the water heating, then 20% of the electricity needed for each
household can be saved. Therefore each household can save (1296 kWh/yr.)
equivalent to (US$ 172/yr.). In 10 years, the use of 200,000 solar water
heaters will avoid the option of increasing the capacity of the plant (80 MW -
150MW), therefore avoiding cost of investment around US$120 million. And
otherwise, the installation of solar heaters will achieve savings in the total
electricity generated, with a payback period of 5.2 years.
Since (SWH) systems are easy to install, use a renewable energy source,
reduce electricity bill, work quickly and quietly, reduce fuel, and GHG
emissions, it is visible that implementing solar water heater systems can offset
CONCLUSION
These solutions will not and cannot come into effect without strong
government backing and support, including financial backing, legislative
changes, enactment of legislation, and continuous monitoring. For example, if
carbon separation and capture technologies are implemented, there must also
be continuous monitoring of air pollution levels by a governmental entity
outside of EDL, as well as a database of information accessible to other
outside entities such as local and international environmental NGO’s. Such a
system makes sure that technologies are working properly and ensures
accountability.
On another level, the government must bear the burden of resolving any
political and regional issues that hinder the evolution of Lebanon’s energy
sector. For example, cooperation with neighboring countries is essential if
there is to be a reliable source of natural gas.
The population of Lebanon can also bear some responsibility for the energy
situation and the high levels of pollution. Adopting renewable energy
technologies at the household level (such as Solar Water Heating systems) is
a first step towards reducing the energy load on thermal power plants and the
electricity grid, reducing the environmental and health impacts of current
energy generation techniques, and reducing utility bills for the Lebanese
household. Again the government has an essential role to play here as far as
guaranteeing the quality of products on the market, educating the public about
these technologies and the environment, and providing financial aid/
incentives.
Showing the world that Lebanon is serious about moving towards cleaner
energy and about reducing harmful emissions will likely lead to international
funding towards these goals, and Lebanon can join the world community in
battling global warming and climate change, while also ensuring it’s people
the kind of reliable electricity supply expected in the 21st century.
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