The Art of the Catapult: Build Greek Ballistae, Roman Onagers, English Trebuchets, and More Ancient Artillery

The rocks of the hills, taken and shaped by hard work, Are made to soar forward from the sling of a machine; Through wind and clouds they ride upon their way, Like meteors, they thunder through space

—Unknown Chinese poet, 1300

In the days before gunpowder was invented, ancient military commanders used large, powerful throwing machines to help them lay siege to castles and forts. Warring countries would often invade each other with the aim of taking land, riches, and treasure from their neighbors. To prevent attackers from invading them and causing trouble, rulers raised armies, trained warriors, and, most important, built forts and castles for protection.

Some of these forts had stone walls several feet thick and were surrounded by deep moats with drawbridges. The forts were built on high ground, allowing the defenders to look down upon attacking armies and fend them off by throwing spears, shooting arrows, and hurling stones at them. Attacking a castle was a hard job, and not one to be taken lightly. The invaders would need a lot of motivation, courage, and luck to have any chance at success.

Despite the protection provided by a fort or castle, wars and invasions were frequent. Political troubles, greed, and the power struggles of kings and princes often turned into armed military confrontations between kingdoms, regions, and cities. And, when men’s thoughts turned to making war, they also turned to thoughts of building machines for winning the war. How did ancient warriors attack a fortified castle and win, before the days of cannons, airplanes, and tanks?

If you go back in time to, say, 400 B.c. (that’s 2,400 years ago), you’d find that although the armies were smaller and the weapons used were more primitive, war was still war. Neighbors still fought with their neighbors. As far back as 400 B.c., military leaders instructed their engineers to build large and powerful machines, called siege engines, that were capable of flinging gigantic projectiles and overcoming the protection afforded by castles and forts. From simple beginnings, these machines soon developed into marvelous, powerful, and complicated mechanisms. Given enough time and enough people to work them, they had the power to batter down the doors or walls of a fortress. But instead of using gunpowder or explosives like modern cannons do, they used enormous bows, big wooden or twisted rope springs, or heavy weights to toss the ammunition.

This book is about these machines, called catapults—the ancient artillery of the Greek, Roman, Chinese, Arab, and European armies. Besides learning about the machines, you will also hear about the lives and times of the best known and most famous of the warriors and kings who used catapults: Alexander the Great, ruler of Macedon and the greatest of all the ancient Greek kings; Saladin, the mighty sultan of Egypt; John Crabbe of Flanders, pirate, adventurer, and consummate catapult builder; and Philip Augustus, King of France and antagonist of the English kings Richard (the Lionheart) and John. All these men, as well as the others described, were intimately involved in the design of catapults and were supremely talented in using them in battle. Through their eyes you will be able to acquire an appreciation for how important, powerful, and interesting these devices are.

In the following sections of this book, there are plans for constructing your own scale models of these ancient marvels, as well as many related projects.

These machines had a lot of different names. The Greeks called them ballistae (plural of ballista), and the Romans called theirs onagers. The English and French armies of the Middle Ages called them trebuchets. The Chinese looked at their mechanical artillery and labeled them Hsuan Feng (whirlwind). The Turks dubbed their machines witches with ropes for hair. In other parts of the world and at other times they were called mangonels, petraries, scorpions, and tormenta (plural for tormentum). But whatever the name given them by their builders, they were basically all catapults, built by military engineers to make something big go whoosh, and then splat.

Catapults were complicated, intricately crafted, powerful engines, capable of breaking up the walls of fort resses by launching heavy rocks through the air. The ancient catapult crews could hurl shot after shot against castle walls and doors. They could toss barrels of sticky, flaming goo over a city’s protective walls and into the streets and courtyards of the city within them. They could fire large and heavy spears and arrows, far larger than could be launched by a simple bow and arrow, and by doing so they could change the course of a battle with only a few shots.

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The catapults and related projects described in this book have been designed with your safety foremost in mind. However, as you try them out, there is still a possibility that something unexpected may occur. It is important that you understand neither the author, the publisher, nor the bookseller can or will guarantee your safety. When you try the projects described here, you do so at your own risk.

Most of the projects and plans contained here are safe for children in late grade school on up to adult. But a few of the projects result in powerful siege engines with projectiles that can move pretty fast. So you should be aware that each city, town, or municipality has its own rules and regulations, some of which may apply to a few of the projects described in this book. Further, local authorities have wide latitude to interpret the law. Therefore, you should take time to understand the rules, regulations, and laws of the area in which you plan to carry out these projects. A check with local law enforcement can tell whether the project is suitable for your area. If not, there are plenty of other places where all of the items here can be undertaken safely and legally. If in doubt, be sure to check it out!

General Safety Rules and Suggestions

These are your general safety rules. Each project may also have its own specific safety instructions.

1. The building projects described here run the gamut from simple to complex. The purpose of most of the projects in this book is to build a device that throws something. So, some of the projects contained here should be supervised by adults.

2. Read the entire project description carefully before beginning the construction process. Make sure you understand what the project is about, and what it is that you are trying to accomplish. If something is unclear, reread the directions until you fully comprehend it.

3. Some of the projects call for the use of hand tools or power tools. All tools must be used according to manufacturer recommendations. Saws and chisels are sharp so handle them with caution and under adult supervision.

4. The area in which the catapult and related projects are operated must be cleared of ALL items that can be damaged by projectiles, flying objects, and so forth.

5. Keep people away from the firing zone near catapults, trebuchets, ballistae, slings, and flingers. Use care when transporting, aiming, and firing, and always be aware of where the device is pointing.

6. Wear protective eyewear when appropriate.

Please, remember this:

1. The instructions and information are provided here for your use without any guarantee of safety. Each project has been extensively tested in a variety of conditions. But variations, mistakes, and unforeseen circumstances can and do occur; therefore, all projects and experiments are performed at your own risk. If you don’t agree with this, then put this book down and find another activity that is more suitable.

2. And finally: there is no substitute for your own common sense. If something doesn’t seem right, stop and review what’s going on. You must take responsibility for your personal safety and the safety of others around you.

All of the projects in this book require adult supervision and each has its own unique safety requirements as well. Watch for these icons, so you know what to expect:

   Use protective eyewear

   Swinging arm alert: Watch out for moving arms or levers

   Sharp and/or heavy tool advisory: Project requires use of saw or hammer

   Flying object alert: Use care when aiming and firing

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From the earliest days of organized warfare, armies have always had three basic types of fighting units. These include first infantry units that consist of men on foot who attempt to advance and take land and position against enemy forces. Second, cavalry units consisting of faster moving, highly mobile combat groups support the infantry. In past times, the cavalry used horses to make them speedy and mobile. Today the cavalry have given up horses for tanks. And some armies today use something called air cavalry, or the equivalent of flying tanks—heavily armored helicopters. And last, there are artillery units, groups of highly trained soldiers that set up and fire big guns to destroy fixed military targets such as buildings and encampments.

Modern artillery units are made up of howitzers, cannons, and rocket-firing batteries. The artillery soldiers are different from the infantry and the cavalry. First of all, they are not particularly fast moving or mobile. They go to a particular location, set up their guns, and then fire away. Second of all, they are especially effective against fixed targets—buildings, bridges, gun emplacements, and so forth.

Before the days of gunpowder and iron or steel cannon barrels, siege engines (catapults) were the artillery of the ancient armies. They were the primitive yet elegant equivalents of the cannons and howitzers used in modern armies. And, like cannons, siege engines weren’t very mobile compared with the infantry soldiers or cavalry. In fact, the larger catapults, such as big trebuchets, would take weeks, sometimes even months to assemble in place. They had a narrowly defined but very important job to do. They were used to break down