Introduction to Calculus

Preface

This book is provided as a supplement to a standard Calculus textbook. Although a knowledge of intermediate algebra and trigonometry is assumed, as many steps as possible are provided to help the reader follow the logic involved in solving the various types of problems encountered in a first semester Calculus course. Theorems are stated without proof, and are often restated in words or symbols more easily understood by my own students. A set of exercises and answers appear at the end of each chapter to allow the reader to practice and receive immediate feedback. Keep pencil and paper handy—reading and working through this book will help you succeed in calculus.

The new edition contains calculator references as well as many new practice problems at the end of each chapter. There are additional review topics that were appreciated by many of my students.

CHAPTER 1

Introductory Topics

This chapter contains a short review of some of the algebraic topics that will be encountered in the remainder of the book. We review the real number system, interval notation, solving inequalities, and graphing in the Cartesian plane.

REAL NUMBERS, INEQUALITIES AND ABSOLUTE VALUE

REAL NUMBERS

The study of calculus involves real numbers. The union of the set of rational numbers (numbers that can be written as a ratio of two integers) and the set of irrational numbers (numbers that cannot be written as a terminating or repeating decimal) is the set of real numbers.

Irrationals

Rationals

ORDER

Compare real numbers using the following symbols:

< less than

≤ less than or equal to

> greater than

≥ greater than or equal to

For example, means lies to the left of on the number line.

INTERVAL NOTATION AND SET NOTATION

In this book, we use subsets of the real numbers as solutions to equations or inequalities. These subsets are usually described using either interval notation or set notation as demonstrated in the following table.

Notice that a parenthesis corresponds to an endpoint that is not included in the set (you may have graphed these as open dots in the past). A bracket corresponds to an endpoint that is included in the set (graphed as a closed dot in the past). The set notation "{x: is read, the set of all x such that."

Example 1.1

Graph each set on a number line.

a) (–2, 0)

b) [1, 3]

c) (– , 1)

Solution 1.1

a)

b)

c)

Notice that the endpoints on each graph match the endpoint notation for the intervals.

Example 1.2

Write each set in interval notation, and then graph each set on a number line.

a) {x: 3 ≤ x ≤ 5}

b) {x: - 1 < x < 2}

c) {x: – ≤ x < }

Solution 1.2

a) [3, 5]    Because the endpoints are included in the solution, use brackets.

Endpoints on the graph match the interval notation.

b) (–1, 2)    Because the endpoints are not included in the solution, use parentheses.

Endpoints on the graph match the interval notation.

c) [– )    Because x ≥ – , use a bracket on the left. Because x < , use a parenthesis on the right.

Endpoints on the graph match the interval notation.

UNBOUNDED INTERVALS

To represent unbounded sets of numbers, use the symbols ∞, or +∞ (positive infinity) and –∞ (negative infinity). The following table contains examples of unbounded intervals.

Note that ∞ and –∞ can never be included as endpoints.

Example 1.3

Complete the following table.

Solution 1.3

SOLVING FIRST-DEGREE AND COMPOUND INEQUALITIES

Solve inequalities such as 2x – 5 < 7 as though the < were an =. Recall that the only exception occurs when you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a negative number, in which case you must reverse the inequality symbol. Compare the following solutions.

Remember to reverse the inequality symbol when multiplying or dividing by a negative number.

Example 1.4

Solve each inequality. Write the solutions using interval notation.

a) 3x – 2 ≥ 5x + 6

b) – x–3 ≤ 5

c) –4 < 2x + 1 < 7

Solution 1.4

c) –4 < 2x + 1 < 7

This inequality means –4 < 2x + 1 and 2x + 1 < 7. You could solve each inequality separately, but as a shortcut, we solve this inequality by working on all three parts at the same time.

ABSOLUTE VALUE

The distance of a number a from zero is its absolute value, written |a|. For example, |–3| = 3, |6| = 6, |0| = 0. The following properties of absolute value are used in this text:

|ab| = |a||b|

|a| =

|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|

|x| = a if and only if x = a or x = –a

|x| < a if and only if -a < x < a

|x| > a if and only if x > a or x < – a

Example 1.5

Write each equation in interval notation, if possible.

a) |3x+ 5| = 8

b) |4x – 1| < 7

c) |6 – 2x| ≥ 6

d) |5x – 1| < – 2

Solution 1.5

The solution set is . Because this solution consists of two points, not an interval, the answer cannot be written in interval notation.

x ≥ 0 is written as (–∞ 0 ]. x ≥ 6 is written as [6, ∞). Using for union (or), the solution set is written (∞ 0] [6, ∞).

d) |5x – 1| < – 2

This problem can be solved by inspection, if you realize that an absolute value cannot be less than –2. Thus the solution is the empty set, { } or . However, if you solve using the equivalent form, proceed as follows:

But this answer implies that a negative number is greater than a positive number, which is not possible. The solution is .

FACTORING

Factoring is used throughout this book; for example, to solve quadratic inequalities, as a part of the process of completing the square, and to solve trigonometric equations. The following are some of the factoring formulas needed in this book.

Consider the following general guidelines for factoring:

Find a common factor first, if possible.

Factor by one of the formulas just listed, if possible.

If the expression has three terms, try trial and error by factoring the first term and the third term into two sets of parentheses. Multiply as a check.

If the expression has four terms, factor by grouping either two terms at a time, or by grouping three terms together as a perfect square trinomial and then applying the formula for the difference of two squares.

Example 1.6

Write each expression in factored form.

a) x² – 4x + 4

b) 5x² – 20

c) 27x³ + 8y³

d) 2x² – 5x – 3

e) x² – 4x + 4 – y²

Solution 1.6