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    1 and 2 Kings
    1 and 2 Kings
    1 and 2 Kings
    Ebook1,214 pages17 hours

    1 and 2 Kings

    By August H. Konkel

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    About this ebook

    The NIV Application Commentary helps you communicate and apply biblical text effectively in today's context.

    To bring the ancient messages of the Bible into today's world, each passage is treated in three sections:

    • Original Meaning. Concise exegesis to help readers understand the original meaning of the biblical text in its historical, literary, and cultural context.
    • Bridging Contexts. A bridge between the world of the Bible and the world of today, built by discerning what is timeless in the timely pages of the Bible.
    • Contemporary Significance. This section identifies comparable situations to those faced in the Bible and explores relevant application of the biblical messages. The author alerts the readers of problems they may encounter when seeking to apply the passage and helps them think through the issues involved.

    This unique, award-winning commentary is the ideal resource for today's preachers, teachers, and serious students of the Bible, giving them the tools, ideas, and insights they need to communicate God's Word with the same powerful impact it had when it was first written.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherZondervan
    Release dateMay 11, 2010
    ISBN9780310865629
    1 and 2 Kings
    Author

    August H. Konkel

    A. H. Konkel the President of Providence College and Seminary in Otterburne Manitoba (Canada). He obtained the PhD degree from Westminster Theological Seminary in 1987. He served as translator for the book of Job in the New Living Translation, and has completed a commentary for Job for Tyndale House Publishers. He was a contributor to the New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. He is married to Esther, they are the parents of four children.

    Read more from August H. Konkel

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      Book preview

      1 and 2 Kings - August H. Konkel

      1 & 2 KINGS

      THE NIV APPLICATION COMMENTARY

      From biblical text … to contemporary life

      AUGUST H. KONKEL

      ZONDERVAN

      The NIV Application Commentary: 1 & 2 Kings

      Copyright © 2006 by August H. Konkel

      Requests for information should be addressed to:

      Zondervan, 3900 Sparks Dr. SE, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49546

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      Konkel, August H.

      1 & 2 Kings / August H. Konkel.

      p. cm.—(NIV application commentary)

      Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

      ePub edition November 2014: ISBN 978-0-310-86562-9

      ISBN-13: 978-0-310-21129-7

      ISBN-10: 0-310-21129-8

      1. Bible. O.T. 1 & 2 Kings—Commentaries. I. Title. II. Series.

      BS1335.53.K66 2006

      2006032090

      CIP

      All Scripture quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from The Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by Biblica, Inc.® Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.

      The website addresses recommended throughout this book are offered as a resource to you. These websites are not intended in any way to be or imply an endorsement on the part of Zondervan, nor do we vouch for their content for the life of this book.

      All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other—except for brief quotations in printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher.

      To Esther

      Contents

      How to Use This Commentary

      Series Introduction

      General Editor’s Preface

      Author’s Preface

      Abbreviations

      Introduction

      Outline

      Selected Bibliography

      Text and Commentary on 1 Kings

      1 Kings 1:1–2:46

      1 Kings 3:1–28

      1 Kings 4:1–34

      1 Kings 5:1–7:51a

      1 Kings 7:51b–9:9

      1 Kings 9:10–10:29

      1 Kings 11:1–43

      1 Kings 12:1–14:31

      1 Kings 15:1–16:34

      1 Kings 17:1–19:21

      1 Kings 20:1–43

      1 Kings 21:1–29

      1 Kings 22:1–50

      1 Kings 22:51–2 Kings 1:18

      Text and Commentary on 2 Kings

      2 Kings 2:1–25

      2 Kings 3:1–27

      2 Kings 4:1–44

      2 Kings 5:1–27

      2 Kings 6:1–8:15

      2 Kings 8:16–10:36

      2 Kings 11:1–20

      2 Kings 11:21–12:21

      2 Kings 13:1–14:29

      2 Kings 15:1–38

      2 Kings 16:1–20

      2 Kings 17:1–41

      2 Kings 18:1–20:21

      2 Kings 21:1–26

      2 Kings 22:1–23:30

      2 Kings 23:31–24:17

      2 Kings 24:18–25:30

      Appendix A: The Greek Text of Kings

      Appendix B: The Chronology of Kings

      Scripture Index

      Subject Index

      Author Index

      Notes

      How to Use This Commentary

      Thank you for purchasing the HarperCollins Christian Publishing eBook version of The NIV Application Commentary.

      What is the difference between an eBook and a print book?

      eBook versions contain all of the content and supplementary materials found in the original print versions and are optimized for navigation in the various apps and devices used for display. eReaders recognize text as one fluid string and are formatted in a single column. eReaders currently do not support the more complex layout seen in print version books. Therefore, some content may not appear in the same place as in the original print version, but it is structured consistently and uses hyperlinks to navigate between related content.

      How do I use the eBook Table of Contents?

      *Important Note: Be sure to consult your device manufacturer’s User’s Guide for device-specific navigation instructions.*

      The Table of Contents is the primary navigation anchor to quickly access various parts of the eBook. It is generally formatted in the same order as the original print version and is hyperlinked as follows:

      • Introductory Materials

      • Commentary

      • Indexes

      Selecting an entry in the Table of Contents takes you to that location in the eBook. Selecting the title of that specific entry or using your device’s Back button or function takes you back to the main Table of Contents.

      How do I navigate the content?

      The eBook version of The NIV Application Commentary includes introductory materials, commentary, footnotes, scripture index, subject index, and author index. Hyperlinks to the materials appear in the Table of Contents as well as the main book text.

      Introductory materials are hyperlinked directly to the content-specific location in the main text.

      • Select the hyperlinked entry in the article or list to go to its location in the main text.

      • Select the hyperlinked entry in the main text to go back to the article or list in the Table of Contents or use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection.

      Footnotes in the Commentary are marked with small, hyperlinked numbers ¹ to access comments and citations.

      • Select the hyperlinked number in the main text to the corresponding footnote.

      • Select the hyperlinked number to the left of the footnote to go back to the main text or use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection.

      Scripture Index includes hyperlinks directly to the Bible Verse citations in the main text.

      • Select the Scripture Index from the Table of Contents.

      • Select the hyperlinked page number 1 to go directly to the citation in the main text.

      • Use the device’s Next Page/Previous Page button or function to scroll through the pages.

      • Use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection

      Subject and Author Indexes are hyperlinked directly to the content-specific location in the main text.

      • Select an Index from the Table of Contents.

      • Select the hyperlinked letter of the alphabet A to go to a corresponding list of entries.

      • Use the device’s Next Page/Previous Page button or function to scroll through the entries.

      • Select the hyperlinked page number 1 to go to the main text.

      • Select the footnote entry marked with n1 to the corresponding footnote.

      • Use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection.

      NOTES:

      • The Bible Translation quoted by the authors in the main Commentary, unless otherwise indicated, is taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved.

      NIV Application Commentary

      Series Introduction

      THE NIV APPLICATION COMMENTARY SERIES is unique. Most commentaries help us make the journey from our world back to the world of the Bible. They enable us to cross the barriers of time, culture, language, and geography that separate us from the biblical world. Yet they only offer a one-way ticket to the past and assume that we can somehow make the return journey on our own. Once they have explained the original meaning of a book or passage, these commentaries give us little or no help in exploring its contemporary significance. The information they offer is valuable, but the job is only half done.

      Recently, a few commentaries have included some contemporary application as one of their goals. Yet that application is often sketchy or moralistic, and some volumes sound more like printed sermons than commentaries.

      The primary goal of the NIV Application Commentary Series is to help you with the difficult but vital task of bringing an ancient message into a modern context. The series not only focuses on application as a finished product but also helps you think through the process of moving from the original meaning of a passage to its contemporary significance. These are commentaries, not popular expositions. They are works of reference, not devotional literature.

      The format of the series is designed to achieve the goals of the series. Each passage is treated in three sections: Original Meaning, Bridging Contexts, and Contemporary Significance.

      Original Meaning

      THIS SECTION HELPS you understand the meaning of the biblical text in its original context. All of the elements of traditional exegesis—in concise form—are discussed here. These include the historical, literary, and cultural context of the passage. The authors discuss matters related to grammar and syntax and the meaning of biblical words.¹ They also seek to explore the main ideas of the passage and how the biblical author develops those ideas.

      After reading this section, you will understand the problems, questions, and concerns of the original audience and how the biblical author addressed those issues. This understanding is foundational to any legitimate application of the text today.

      Bridging Contexts

      THIS SECTION BUILDS a bridge between the world of the Bible and the world of today, between the original context and the contemporary context, by focusing on both the timely and timeless aspects of the text.

      God’s Word is timely. The authors of Scripture spoke to specific situations, problems, and questions. The author of Joshua encouraged the faith of his original readers by narrating the destruction of Jericho, a seemingly impregnable city, at the hands of an angry warrior God (Josh. 6). Paul warned the Galatians about the consequences of circumcision and the dangers of trying to be justified by law (Gal. 5:2–5). The author of Hebrews tried to convince his readers that Christ is superior to Moses, the Aaronic priests, and the Old Testament sacrifices. John urged his readers to test the spirits of those who taught a form of incipient Gnosticism (1 John 4:1–6). In each of these cases, the timely nature of Scripture enables us to hear God’s Word in situations that were concrete rather than abstract.

      Yet the timely nature of Scripture also creates problems. Our situations, difficulties, and questions are not always directly related to those faced by the people in the Bible. Therefore, God’s word to them does not always seem relevant to us. For example, when was the last time someone urged you to be circumcised, claiming that it was a necessary part of justification? How many people today care whether Christ is superior to the Aaronic priests? And how can a test designed to expose incipient Gnosticism be of any value in a modern culture?

      Fortunately, Scripture is not only timely but timeless. Just as God spoke to the original audience, so he still speaks to us through the pages of Scripture. Because we share a common humanity with the people of the Bible, we discover a universal dimension in the problems they faced and the solutions God gave them. The timeless nature of Scripture enables it to speak with power in every time and in every culture.

      Those who fail to recognize that Scripture is both timely and timeless run into a host of problems. For example, those who are intimidated by timely books such as Hebrews, Galatians, or Deuteronomy might avoid reading them because they seem meaningless today. At the other extreme, those who are convinced of the timeless nature of Scripture, but who fail to discern its timely element, may wax eloquent about the Melchizedekian priesthood to a sleeping congregation, or worse still, try to apply the holy wars of the Old Testament in a physical way to God’s enemies today.

      The purpose of this section, therefore, is to help you discern what is timeless in the timely pages of the Bible—and what is not. For example, how do the holy wars of the Old Testament relate to the spiritual warfare of the New? If Paul’s primary concern is not circumcision (as he tells us in Gal. 5:6), what is he concerned about? If discussions about the Aaronic priesthood or Melchizedek seem irrelevant today, what is of abiding value in these passages? If people try to test the spirits today with a test designed for a specific first-century heresy, what other biblical test might be more appropriate?

      Yet this section does not merely uncover that which is timeless in a passage but also helps you to see how it is uncovered. The authors of the commentaries seek to take what is implicit in the text and make it explicit, to take a process that normally is intuitive and explain it in a logical, orderly fashion. How do we know that circumcision is not Paul’s primary concern? What clues in the text or its context help us realize that Paul’s real concern is at a deeper level?

      Of course, those passages in which the historical distance between us and the original readers is greatest require a longer treatment. Conversely, those passages in which the historical distance is smaller or seemingly nonexistent require less attention.

      One final clarification. Because this section prepares the way for discussing the contemporary significance of the passage, there is not always a sharp distinction or a clear break between this section and the one that follows. Yet when both sections are read together, you should have a strong sense of moving from the world of the Bible to the world of today.

      Contemporary Significance

      THIS SECTION ALLOWS the biblical message to speak with as much power today as it did when it was first written. How can you apply what you learned about Jerusalem, Ephesus, or Corinth to our present-day needs in Chicago, Los Angeles, or London? How can you take a message originally spoken in Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic and communicate it clearly in our own language? How can you take the eternal truths originally spoken in a different time and culture and apply them to the similar-yet-different needs of our culture?

      In order to achieve these goals, this section gives you help in several key areas.

      (1) It helps you identify contemporary situations, problems, or questions that are truly comparable to those faced by the original audience. Because contemporary situations are seldom identical to those faced by the original audience, you must seek situations that are analogous if your applications are to be relevant.

      (2) This section explores a variety of contexts in which the passage might be applied today. You will look at personal applications, but you will also be encouraged to think beyond private concerns to the society and culture at large.

      (3) This section will alert you to any problems or difficulties you might encounter in seeking to apply the passage. And if there are several legitimate ways to apply a passage (areas in which Christians disagree), the author will bring these to your attention and help you think through the issues involved.

      In seeking to achieve these goals, the contributors to this series attempt to avoid two extremes. They avoid making such specific applications that the commentary might quickly become dated. They also avoid discussing the significance of the passage in such a general way that it fails to engage contemporary life and culture.

      Above all, contributors to this series have made a diligent effort not to sound moralistic or preachy. The NIV Application Commentary Series does not seek to provide ready-made sermon materials but rather tools, ideas, and insights that will help you communicate God’s Word with power. If we help you to achieve that goal, then we have fulfilled the purpose for this series.

      The Editors

      General Editor’s Preface

      THE SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE, a cornerstone of modern, religiously plural democracies, leaves unclear the relationship between prophet and king. The two books of Kings are crystal clear on the issue—the prophet has authority over the king.

      To be sure, some present-day commentators are sure that modern Western democracies are clear on the relationship between prophet and king. The king (or president or prime minister or whatever the political ruler is called) rules. No ambiguity there, they say. Others demur.

      Some of the confusion has to do with what is understood by the three terms in the phrase, the prophet has authority over the king. What is a prophet? What is a king? What is authority? Some of the confusion can be traced to the different ways the biblical writer of 1 and 2 Kings understood these three terms and the way those of us in modern democratic pluralisms understand them.

      The writer of Kings thought of a prophet as a charismatic person given a special message from God to present to a backsliding king of Israel. He considered a king a person anointed by God to politically rule over Israel. Authority was a kind of moral commitment and example on the part of either the prophet or king. The prophet, for example, demonstrated his authority by delivering his unpopular message from God to the king regardless of the danger or personal cost. The king, by contrast, demonstrated his authority by personal model—the people’s character was represented by the king’s character. When the king sinned, the people sinned; when the king was faithful and just, the people were considered faithful and just.

      Part of the challenge facing Gus Konkel as he wrote this excellent commentary on these two biblical books is that none of these three terms is understood this way in modern (particularly Western), religiously plural democracies. We are faced with the classic commentator’s challenge—how to bridge the difference in meaning between biblical times and contemporary times.

      Who is a prophet today? Whereas biblical prophets were specially called individuals, the prophetic function today rests largely with the voice of the church. We sometimes still play with the idea of identifying individual prophets such as Martin Luther King and Billy Graham and Desmond Tutu—but our egalitarian leanings urge us toward the prophetic role of the entire church rather than special individuals.

      Who is a king today? Whereas biblical kings ruled by law and God’s anointing, political leaders in representative governments rule not by God’s anointing but by making decisions based largely on the majority will of the people who elected them. Today’s kings do occasionally exert leadership at odds with the so-called will of the people, but they tend not to stay in office long if they do.

      What is authority today? The authority of political leaders does not rest in their personal willingness to and faithfulness in living a sanctified Christian life. I can feel all of you recoiling at the thought of having your character represented by Bill Clinton or George Bush. Yet we would be naïve to claim that the personal life and commitment of elected leaders has no authority in our lives. They have some constitutional authority and a great deal of what we might call moral suasion, a platform from which their personal behavior and commitments influence countless young people looking for models.

      And what of the authority of prophets? Of the rare individuals on whom we confer the title, too often they find themselves having to seek political power to change things, becoming politicians themselves in the process. More pertinent is the question of what is the authority of the church, today’s prophetic voice. Unfortunately, we find a double standard operating. Officially we deny they have a role in a system dedicated to the separation of church and state. Unofficially, we play a role of moral suasion every bit as important as that exercised by our kings.

      People believe in and desire this unofficial relationship, much more than they do the official separation laws. Perhaps this implicit double standard is the way forward to make sure that the prophet always has a say in the work of the king. Perhaps making it more explicit would run us into dangers we have faced before of having the church overly involved in the politics of the world. But the message of 1-2 Kings is that no matter how we do it, the prophet must have a voice. God rules and we must tell the world of that fact.

      Terry C. Muck

      Author’s Preface

      A FREQUENT RESPONSIBILITY FOR ME as a minister was speaking at church retreats. On one such occasion the topic was faithfulness; a passage that intrigued me in this regard was the description of Hezekiah in 2 Kings 18:5–8. Hezekiah’s faithfulness was uncompromising, even though the end of the story depicted his failure of faith (20:14–19). The story resonated as a genuine experience of the pilgrimage in learning to trust God, and it has continued to captivate my attention.

      Many aspects of the Hezekiah story were difficult to unravel. Could Hezekiah really have been born when his father was just eleven years old (cf. 2 Kings 16:2; 17:1; 18:1–2)? How could Hezekiah have begun to reign in the time of King Hoshea of Israel if the siege of Sennacherib was fourteen years after Hezekiah began to reign (18:13), seven years after Hoshea’s reign ended? Eventually I came to do a doctoral dissertation examining the Hezekiah story in all the biblical and Assyrian records.

      My doctoral studies have led to a lifetime of study of the work of Kings, alongside Isaiah and Chronicles. I felt therefore particularly privileged when Tremper Longman III asked me to participate in this NIV Application Commentary series. In that regard, I am indebted to my lifelong mentor not only for the opportunity to participate in this project, but also for continuous progress in research, which involved numerous other publishing projects.

      This commentary has been significantly enhanced through the review of John Walton, with his extensive knowledge of Ancient Near Eastern history and culture, and the editorial work of Verlyn Verbrugge, particularly in the Contemporary Significance sections. It was my desire to know more of the history and culture of biblical times that drove me to doctoral studies during my days as a pastor. By the grace of God, my doctoral studies were the beginning of a life-changing journey in understanding Scripture. I have always wanted to make the Bible a living Word to those who read it; they need to understand the social and historical contexts of its origins and to grasp how those issues might relate to contemporary times. The editors of this commentary have taught me much in that regard.

      Students are one of the greatest contributors to growth in biblical knowledge. I wish to thank the students in my classes at Providence Theological Seminary in Manitoba who have stimulated, challenged, and informed my thinking over the last twenty years. Of particular note are those students who undertook the discipline of a thesis in which they researched topics of interest and importance.

      The freedom to do biblical research can only happen with the support of family. In that regard, this book is dedicated to my wife, Esther, a tribute that love desires and is far less than debt requires. She has always been patient and understanding especially when what was needed was a great sacrifice of time and financial resources. She has not only been a constant encouragement, but has cheerfully and competently borne the task of caring for our four beautiful children. Melanie, Blythe, Theodore, and Tessa have been a joy and inspiration, a profound insight into God’s design of creating us in his image. My family has not only provided much happiness, but also much significance in my work. God’s story in this world is that of his name being glorified from generation to generation. Our two grandchildren, Liesl and Charis, have made that an existential truth for me, and it is profoundly gratifying.

      In spite of its shortcomings, for which I alone remain responsible, it is my prayer this study may serve as a resource for pastors and teachers in years to come. May it be one of the ways in which the majesty of the name of God is proclaimed to all the earth.

      August H. Konkel

      July 2006

      Abbreviations

      AB Anchor Bible

      ABRL Anchor Bible Reference Library

      ABS Archaeology and Biblical Studies

      AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament

      ATD Das Alte Testament Deutsch

      AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies

      BAR Biblical Archaeology Review

      BASOR Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research

      BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research

      BHS Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia

      Bib Biblica

      BSac Bibliotheca Sacra

      BT The Bible Translator

      BWANT Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament

      CBOT Coniectanea Biblica Old Testament Series

      CC Continental Commentary

      DJD Discoveries in the Judean Desert

      DSD Dead Sea Discoveries

      EA El Amarna tablets

      ErIsr Eretz Israel

      ETL Ephermerides theologicae lovanienses

      FOTL Forms of Old Testament Literature

      GKC Gesenius-Kautzsch-Cowley, Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar

      HALAT Hebräisches und aramäisches Lexikon zum alten Testament

      HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs

      ICC International Critical Commentary

      IDB Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible

      IDBSup Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, Supplement

      IEJ Israel Exploration Journal

      Int Interpretation

      ISBE International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

      JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

      JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies

      JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

      JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies

      JNSL Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages

      JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

      JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplements

      KJV King James Version

      KTU The Cuneiform Alphabetic Texts from Ugarit

      LXX Septuagint

      NASB New American Standard Bible

      NCBC New Century Bible Commentary

      NEB New English Bible

      NIBC New International Biblical Commentary

      NIDOTTE New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis

      NIV New International Version

      NIVAC NIV Application Commentary

      NLT New Living Translation

      NRSV New Revised Standard Version

      NSBT New Studies in Biblical Theology

      OBO Orbis biblicus et orientalis

      OTL Old Testament Library

      OtSt Oudtestamentische Studiën

      PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly

      RevExp Review and Expositor

      RIMA The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods

      RSV Revised Standard Version

      SBT Studies in Biblical Theology

      ScrHier Scripta Hierosolymitana

      SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament

      SJT Scottish Journal of Theology

      TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Testament

      THAT Theologishes Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament

      TOTC Tyndale Old Testament Commentary

      TrinJ Trinity Journal

      TS Theological Studies

      UF Ugarit-Forschungen

      VE Vox Evangelica

      VTSup Vetus Testamentum Supplements

      WBC Word Biblical Commentary

      ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

      Introduction

      THE HISTORY OF 1 AND 2 KINGS is a direct continuation of the account of the kingdom of David told in Samuel. The division between Samuel and Kings is somewhat artificial, as is evident in ancient editions of the books of Kings. The Greek translators of the books of Kings found the end of the book of Samuel at 1 Kings 2:11 in our Bibles.¹ This was a sensible division in the narrative, because that verse gives a summary of the reign of David from the time he was made king in Hebron (cf. 2 Sam. 5:1–5) until the time he died. This is comparable to the regular notations in the books of Kings, which provide summaries of the reign of a king at his death and then begin a new section with the introduction of the next king. The accession of Solomon was regarded as a continuation of the story of David’s reign and introduced the narrative divisions in the manner typical of Kings. A break after 1 Kings 2:11 divides the long history of the kingdom, which began with Samuel and Saul, into two equal parts at a point where there is a natural division in the narrative. David has died, after a reign of forty years, seven in Hebron and thirty-three in Jerusalem.

      It is also important to know that the Hebrew Bible adopts a different order of books than that familiar in the English Bible. The order of books in the English Bible has been largely influenced by early church tradition, which had the Old Testament in Greek and Latin translations. Complete Greek Bibles in book form (called a codex as opposed to a scroll) are known as early as the fourth century. The codex required that books be bound in a certain order. The Hebrews resisted the binding of their sacred scrolls in book form for centuries. The oldest Hebrew codices come from approximately A.D. 900, but as early as the first century the order of the Hebrew canon is partially known from the writings of Josephus.² His threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures as the writings of Moses, the prophets after Moses, and the hymns is also found in the New Testament (see Luke 24:44). The standard order of the Hebrew Scriptures came to be Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings as the Former Prophets.

      The church largely ignored the Hebrew Scriptures until the time of the Reformation. Origen in the third century did an elaborate comparison of the Greek Bible with the Hebrew (the Hexapla), and Jerome in the fourth century consciously used the Hebrew to assist in his revision of the Latin. However, influence on the Greek and Latin Scriptures was minimal, as is evident from the text of the Old Testament and the continuous use of the Apocrypha as part of the Scriptures—writings that were never used as part of the canonical books by the Hebrews. The Reformers went back to the Hebrew Scriptures for their translations and commentaries and regarded the Apocrypha as outside the canon. Their work gave new shape to the Scriptures, which came to be much more widely distributed because of the advancement of printing, but they never went back to the order of the Hebrew Scriptures in their publications of the Bible.

      The result is that most contemporary readers of the English Bible read Kings more in association with Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah-Esther than they do with Joshua, Judges, and Samuel. The continuous narrative of Deuteronomy through Kings tends to be somewhat compromised and the many literary associations minimized. Kings also tends to be read as history in a more modern sense of the term rather than as prophecy, which was the way it was regarded in Hebrew. The books of the Former Prophets have much in common with the Latter Prophets. Both are concerned with the preaching of the prophets to the people bound to God by their covenant at Mount Sinai. The Former Prophets begin with the entrance to the Promised Land and end with the Exile, while the Latter Prophets begin with the demise of the kingdom of Israel (Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah) and end with the restoration during the time of Ezra-Nehemiah (Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi).

      There is a chronological overlap of about two hundred years as well as an overlap in content. The account of Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:17–20:19) is found almost word for word in Isaiah (Isa. 36:1–39:8), which is a prominent example of the influence of the prophet Isaiah in Jerusalem. The Latter Prophets are a prophetic analysis of the way God was at work in the history of the people, just as the Former Prophets. The basic difference is that the Former Prophets are more chronological in their presentation, while the Latter Prophets are anthologies.

      Historical Progression in the Former Prophets

      THE FORMER PROPHETS must not be read as straightforward chronological progression relating God’s judgment on political events from Conquest to Exile. The book of Joshua shows how God gave the land to the Israelites, a process that took much longer than the lifetime of Joshua (cf. Josh. 13:1). The book of Judges repeats events from Joshua in showing how the Israelites became Canaanite once they were in the land. The main point is that there was initial covenant faithfulness while Joshua was alive (Josh. 24:28–31), but that apostasy began once the leader had died (Judg. 2:6–10). The repetition of the death of Joshua distinguishes the purposes of the writings, which overlap in events they report. Samuel tells of David’s rise to the throne after the death of Saul (2 Sam. 2:1–5:5) and gives a summary of David’s reign (8:1–18). The narrative then returns to the earlier part of David’s reign and the sin with Bathsheba, which led to continual conflict in David’s household (11:1–12:12). That struggle did not end until David’s death; Kings begins with the conflict for the throne between Solomon and Adonijah. This is the conclusion of the succession of David, a narrative that followed the description of David’s reign.

      The book of Kings follows the same pattern of emphasizing those events that were critical in the destiny of the nation. One of the most powerful and influential kings in ancient Israel was Omri, whose reign is related in a mere six verses (1 Kings 16:23–28). The achievements of Omri are known through various Assyrian records,³ which also provide a reference for an absolute chronology of the kings of Israel. Omri established a dynasty in Israel that was continued by Ahab (1 Kings 16:29), Ahaziah (22:52), and Joram (2 Kings 3:1). The dynasty came to a violent end with the revolt of Jehu, who killed all the seventy sons of Ahab in Samaria and every last survivor of the house of Omri (10:1–17). Ahab is named in the Aramean coalition against the Assyrians in the battle of Qarqar in 853 B.C.⁴ The beginning of the reign of Jehu is known from the reference to him on the Assyrian Black Obelisk, which can be dated to 841.5

      The account of the dynasty of Omri, which lasted about forty years, occupies fifteen chapters in Kings, or about one third of the total narrative, which covers four hundred years. This disproportion is understandable in a prophetic work like Kings. The burden of Kings is to show the reason for the Exile, which was the violation of the covenant of Mount Sinai, through alliances and the worship of the Canaanite god Baal. The reign of Ahab was characterized by his alliance with the Phoenicians through his marriage to Jezebel. It was the most prominent example of the proliferation of the evils of the Baal cult, and the efforts of the prophets to counter such an influence were at peril to their own lives. This short period of time characterized the dangers of a foreign religion, a central concern of the prophetic writing of Kings.

      It must further be observed that within this period of two generations the events do not appear to be arranged in chronological succession. Kings tells us of the ascension of Elijah (2 Kings 2:1) before the alliance of Joram king of Israel, Jehoshaphat king of Judah, and the king of Edom against the Moabite king (3:1–27). Chronicles tells us of the death of Jehoshaphat, the accession of his son Jehoram (2 Chron. 21:1), and the revolt of the king of Edom (21:8–10a). After this Elijah sends wicked Jehoram a severe letter (21:12–15), warning him of an awful death because he assassinated his brothers and followed in the ways of Ahab. If we accept the chronology of Edom offered within Kings, the Elijah—Elisha stories are not placed in chronological order.⁶ Rather this cycle of stories serves as examples of prophetic activity in the midst of apostasy. As a prophetic work, the narrative of Kings shows the faithfulness of God and the disaster of the failure to keep the covenant.

      Prophetic Character of Kings

      THE STUDY IN HISTORICAL TRADITIONS by Martin Noth drew attention to the continuous narrative that extends from Deuteronomy through Kings.⁷ Noth believed that this lengthy account of the whole history of Israel was originally the creation of a single writer who was both author and editor, bringing together material from highly varied traditions and arranging it according to a carefully conceived plan. He assumed that this author lived in the Exile, since that is the end point of the books of Kings. The novelty of Noth’s model was not in the perception of the continuity of these books or in the observation of their being edited in a style conforming to Deuteronomy. Rather, Noth believed that the original work of Deuteronomy through Kings was a continuous whole that was only later divided into books.

      The influential study of Noth dramatically altered the scholarly conception of the earliest histories of the nation Israel. Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings came to be recognized as continuous by design; they were not a patchwork created from two or more previous histories (sources) going back to Mosaic times. It became common to speak of a Deuteronomistic History in reference to the Former Prophets and to speak of the writers as the Deuteronomistic Historians. It should be noted that what Noth called the Deuteronomic History is not the present form of the Former Prophets, but an original composition found within these writings.⁸ Noth found numerous later additions to the original work, some of them quite large (e.g., Joshua 13–22), but he made no attempt to relate them to each other or to the systematic revisions of later editors. Since Noth a great deal of study has been devoted to authorship and date of the composition process; it is usually assumed that there were at least two stages in the Deuteronomistic History: one at the time of Josiah, and one during the Exile.

      Prophetic Speeches

      NOTH CORRECTLY OBSERVED the important role that speeches play in the narrative of Israel. In the course of the history a leading person is introduced with a speech, long or short, which looks forward and backward in an attempt to interpret the course of events and draws the relevant practical conclusions.⁹ At the beginning of the book of Joshua, after the introductory challenge of God, Joshua addresses the tribes east of the Jordan, outlining their responsibility in the task of occupation until Yahweh gives rest to all the rest of the tribes (1:12–15). Rest becomes a theological term for the fulfillment of the promise of inheritance of the land (cf. Deut. 3:20; 12:9–10; Josh. 21:44; 22:4; 23:1; 2 Sam. 7:1, 11; 1 Kings 5:18). Joshua gives a long solemn speech formulating critical instructions for conduct in the land they have come to possess (Josh. 23). This speech initiates the transition to the time period of the judges of Israel.

      The books of Joshua and Judges are conscious contrasts of faithfulness to the covenant. Joshua tells of how the land of Canaan became the land of Israel under the leadership of Joshua because the people were faithful (Josh. 24:28–31). Judges is the account of how the land of Israel became Canaanite because of the failure of the people to keep the covenant (Judg. 2:6–10). The failure of the judges was a failure of leadership; there was no king in Israel (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). The transition to kings is introduced by a lengthy speech by the prophet Samuel (1 Sam. 12). The people are gathered to learn the lessons of past history and are admonished to be faithful in this new opportunity (12:20–25). Finally, after the completion of the temple in Jerusalem, Solomon gives a long speech in the form of a prayer (1 Kings 8:14–53), expounding the significance of the temple and emphasizing the importance of prayer and forgiveness for their failures. These speeches are prophetic admonitions and instructions to the three major periods of the history of Israel.

      There are other summarizing reflections on the history presented as part of the narrative. Joshua provides a summary of the occupation of the land (Josh. 12); the cyclical and degenerative cycles of the judges are introduced with a description of covenant violation and judgment in spite of repeated divine intervention in mercy (Judg. 2:11–19). In the introduction of the well-known story of Gideon and the Midianites, an unnamed prophet provides the explanation for the devastation of their land (6:7–10); in the typical vocabulary and style of Deuteronomy this prophet rehearses the basic message of God’s redemption and Israel’s rebellion. This is an example of the retrospective reflection given for the grim outcome of the monarchic period in Israel and Judah (2 Kings 17:7–23). Yahweh had warned Israel and Judah through all his prophets (v. 13) to turn from their evil ways; their refusal to do so had led to their Exile, just as the prophets had said (v. 23).

      The emphasis in this prophetic history is the voice of God, which manifests itself in the covenant requirements of integrity in relationships, with both God and people. As Noth pointed out, it is remarkable that there is no concern for the actual practice of the temple rituals, even after the dedication of the temple by Solomon.¹⁰ There is, of course, an acknowledgment that sacrifices were a part of the customary form of worship, but the focus of the whole is on the practice of covenant requirements.

      Covenant Obligation

      THE ESSENTIALS OF COVENANT instruction are found in what Deuteronomy refers to as this law. This expression is found eighteen times in Deuteronomy, most of them in the concluding chapters on maintaining the covenant (Deut. 27–32). The introduction to Deuteronomy makes clear that this law is the content of the book itself (1:5; 4:44–45), the teaching of Moses in Moab just before the entrance of Israel into the Promised Land. This law stands as the envy of all the nations (4:8), who may observe the wisdom of the ways of the people that follow it. It is further described as the covenant written in the book of this law (29:21). The renewal of the covenant at Shechem (between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim) is a solemn oath to observe the teaching of the law written out before them (27:3, 8). Grievous curses rest on all those who fail to maintain this law (7:26; 28:58, 61).

      The essence of the covenant is to reverence Yahweh exclusively. The covenant is the voice of God written in the book of this law (Deut. 30:10); their God demands uncompromising devotion of their mind and desire (cf. 6:1–6). The words of the covenant are to be kept with the ark (31:25–26) as a permanent testimony to their oath of commitment. The priests as the custodians of this book of the law are responsible to renew the covenant every seven years (31:9–13); they review its teaching to all the assembly (women, children, and the sojourners are included), gathered at the Feast of Booths.

      According to Deuteronomy, the book of this law is the particular responsibility of the king, whom Yahweh will choose. When they come to the land, they are to install their king in accordance with the divine choice (Deut. 17:15). The king is required to make a copy of this law from the book, which is in the charge of the priests (v. 18), and the king must read it regularly, so he will learn to reverence Yahweh and learn to observe its requirements (v. 19). The king is one with his brothers in the requirement of subservience to the covenant, but the king is responsible to ensure that the practice of the covenant is carried out in the regulations of the kingdom. This becomes the sole criterion of evaluation applied to each of the kings of Israel and Judah in the history written about them.

      Deuteronomistic Theology

      IN A DETAILED AND COMPREHENSIVE STUDY, Moshe Weinfeld has identified nine theological tenets found in the Deuteronomistic presentation of history:¹¹ (1) the struggle against idolatry; (2) the centralization of the place of worship; (3) exodus, covenant, and election; (4) the monotheistic creed; (5) observance of the law and loyalty to the covenant; (6) inheritance of the land; (7) retribution and material motivation; (8) fulfillment of prophecy; (9) the election of the Davidic dynasty. All of these tenets are articulated in jargon that is distinctly Deuteronomistic.¹²

      The kings of Israel and Judah are the chosen heirs of the covenant and the land. Their loyalty to the covenant is measured in terms of absolute allegiance to Yahweh; this exclusivity is unlike that of all the other religions, and it is a standard that is impossible to achieve (Josh. 24:16–20). The Israelites will constantly adopt the level of loyalty required by Canaanite gods, they will compromise their worship of Yahweh, and they will suffer the consequent judgment. The judgment passed on kings is not an evaluation of achievements and failures. The prophets are not concerned with good and evil actions, but with the one fundamental decision on which salvation and judgment depend. In the end the nation will fall, but the work of God will not fail.

      The catastrophes of the exile of Israel (722 B.C.) and of Judah (586 B.C.) are of the most profound theological significance. The theological interpretation of these events is that Israel has cumulated an ever-increasing burden of guilt and faithlessness until at last Yahweh leaves his people to the ultimate judgment. This results in a considerable perplexity about the future of saving history. David was promised that the kingdom of God would be realized through an eternal dynasty of his descendants (2 Sam. 7:12–17). The grace of God was a mitigating factor for covenant failures, but there were limits. The fate of the kingdom of Israel was determined by the abomination of Jeroboam in setting up the calves at Dan and Bethel (1 Kings 14:16). In spite of this the kingdom continued for another two centuries. Even so wicked a king as Ahab humbled himself at the word of judgment (21:29), so the judgment on his house was not fulfilled in his lifetime.

      During the times of severe oppression by the Arameans, Yahweh showed mercy and granted reprieve for the sake of his covenant (2 Kings 13:23; 14:25–26). The one enduring hope was the promise to David, a promise passed on to Solomon by David (1 Kings 2:4). In his prayer at the consecration of the temple, Solomon declared this promise to have been realized (8:20), though it was followed with a prayer acknowledging the condition of covenant obedience (vv. 25–26). Solomon himself followed the ways of the Sidonians (11:5–6), so the kingdom was taken from him, though for the sake of David one tribe remained (11:11–13, 32, 36). This promise was repeated to Abijah (15:4), the faithless successor to Rehoboam.

      David is the model of covenant loyalty and integrity in the history of Kings,¹³ the one who is worthy to receive the promise of the eternal dynasty. The dynasty of David survives in Judah, but in the end Judah does not survive. The survival of the nation has been conditional to keeping the covenant. The future of an eternal dynasty is left in tension with the demise of the temporal kingdom.

      The promise of the eternal dynasty had its roots in the covenant of Sinai and in the promise to the patriarchs.¹⁴ David was the servant of God (2 Sam. 7:5), in the manner of Moses (cf. Josh. 1:2, 7), and received rest (2 Sam. 7:1, 11), just as Moses had led the people into rest (Josh. 1:13, 15; 23:1). The divine obligation of the promise is not dependent on the human obligation to keep the covenant.¹⁵ The demise of the nations of Israel and Judah is the consequence of covenant violation, but this does not annul the promise, which will be realized in a new covenant. The new covenant (Jer. 31:31–34) needs to be of a different order; it cannot simply be the nation being given another opportunity to fulfill the covenant responsibility.¹⁶ In the dying days of the city of Jerusalem the prophet Jeremiah holds out the hope that God will supply the fundamental change required in the hearts of the people.

      The transformation of the people will be entirely an act of divine grace; it will be the means of the divine promise coming to fruition. This hope is not explicit in the story of the nation as related in Kings; essentially it falls outside the scope of the history of the nation, since its realization will not be in nationalistic terms. At the same time the eternal promise to David is prominent in the account of the history of the nation and is one of the important tenets of the intellectual form in which the nation understands its significance and its corporate identity.

      Prophetic Activity

      IN THE CHRONICLES OF THE KINGS, the prophets are responsible to hold the kings accountable to maintain the covenant. They appear chiefly as opponents of the kings, to confront the rulers who are apostates, or inclined to become apostate, with an unambiguous statement of the word and will of God. The narratives of the prophets account for a considerable amount of the material in Kings; most notable are the stories of Elijah and Elisha (1 Kings 17–2 Kings 8) and the prophecy of Isaiah in the Assyrian crisis (2 Kings 18–21). Though other prophets are not as prominent, their role is no less significant.

      The division of the kingdom begins with Jeroboam the son of Nebat, who becomes the prototype for the covenant failure of the kings of Israel (1 Kings 16:26, 31, etc.), but the division of the kingdom takes place under the direction of the prophet Ahijah of Shiloh (11:29). Jeroboam is enlisted in the service of Solomon as responsible for transportation of goods (v. 28). He revolts against Solomon and is forced to flee to Egypt (11:26; 12:2), but it is likely that he is encouraged in his rebellion by the prophet Ahijah. Ahijah declares that ten tribes will be given to Jeroboam (11:30–33) because of the failure of Israel to keep the covenant. The refusal of Rehoboam to conciliate the people and the successful coup of Jeroboam is part of the divine purpose (12:15), as spoken by the prophet. But Jeroboam leads the ten tribes into apostasy with the establishment of the calves at Dan and Bethel (12:26–31). The message of the prophet Ahijah to him is not only that his sick son will die, but also that the rule of his house will come to an end (14:10–11).

      Another prophet, Micaiah son of Imlah (1 Kings 22:8), is summoned at the request of Jehoshaphat when Ahab is seeking his help to recapture Ramoth Gilead from the Syrians. Micaiah prophesies that Ahab has been lured into his own death by lying prophets (22:19–23). Ahab has him thrown into prison (v. 26), but the word of the prophet is fulfilled in that the king is killed in battle in spite of his efforts to disguise himself (vv. 37–38).

      Prophetic Fulfillment

      THE FULFILLMENT OF PROPHECY is thus one of the central themes of the books of Kings. The word of Yahweh concerning the requirement of the covenant is clear, although at times the summary judgment is given in general terms, simply saying that the king did not comply with the covenant requirement completely (1 Kings 11:4; 15:3, 14). With this determinative principle there is the certain efficacy of the word of God, which does not fail but is invariably fulfilled.¹⁷ Ahijah tells Jeroboam that his family will be terminated (14:10–11), an event that is noted as fulfilled when the usurper Baasha destroys the royal house (15:29). The judgment against Jeroboam finds its ultimate fulfillment in the end of the nation of Israel (14:15–16).¹⁸ An unknown prophet at Bethel specifically tells the idolatrous Jeroboam that a descendant of David named Josiah will kill the priests of his altar and burn human bones on it (13:1–3); this is fulfilled when Josiah purges the cultic places (2 Kings 23:16–18).

      Some of the fulfillments are in reference to prophetic words antecedent to Kings. Joshua placed a curse upon Jericho, saying that anyone who rebuilt it would do so at the cost of an eldest and youngest son (Josh. 6:26); in disregard of this, Ahab incites an individual named Hiel of Bethel to rebuild it, with the result that he suffers precisely the penalty prescribed (1 Kings 16:34). On the positive side, Yahweh has determined the temple will be built by a son of David (2 Sam. 7:13), an achievement brought about by Solomon (1 Kings 8:20). Deuteronomistic theology views history as a fulfillment of the will of the Lord and therefore can be announced by the prophetic word. This prophetic word is not so much predictive as declarative of the requirement of the covenant and the consequences of failing to observe it.

      Kings as Ancient History Writing

      THE HISTORY OF THE BIBLE embodies a variety of incidental detail, but its central issues are the larger questions of life and destiny. As Speiser points out, the Bible is not so much a chronicle of events worth recording, or thought to be worth recording, as it is an interpretation of significant happenings. Thus it is essentially a philosophy of history,¹⁹ with the purpose demonstrating a divinely ordained way of life. Its central theme is the quest of a life worth living, and if need be, worth dying for. The Scriptures are never intended to be a mere history of events or the biography of a nation.²⁰ The reader interested in such things is told where to find them, such as the Book of the Wars of the LORD (Num. 21:14), the Book of Jashar (Josh. 10:13), the book of the annals of the kings of Israel (1 Kings 14:19), and the book of the annals of the kings of Judah (2 Kings 23:28). The purpose of the Deuteronomistic History is to tell the story of a society in search of an enduring way of life, a life of universal validity.

      It is important to define the concept of history. A concept of history is not an effort to set up scientific criteria by which writing may qualify as history, and not all literary forms dealing with the past can be classified as histories. The noted Dutch historian Johan Huizinga has defined history as the intellectual form in which a civilization renders account to itself of its past.²¹ The intellectual form of writing about the past may be referred to as history writing.²² Rendering an account of the past requires an assessment of responsibility for past actions, passing judgment on them and showing their consequences for the present state of affairs. A civilization rendering an account of its past provides a corporate identity. It expresses what a nation is and what it stands for; it shows the essential character of the people and evaluates their actions.

      This definition of history distinguishes it from other forms of writing about the past. Historiography is a more inclusive category for all writings about the past, which may be incorporated in the task of history writing.²³ History writing is corporate in character, considers the reasons for recalling the past and the significance given to past events, and plays a significant role in the tradition of the people.

      The history of Kings, in which the respective histories of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah are portrayed in a synchronistic patchwork, may have been influenced by Babylonian historiography.²⁴ Mazar is surely correct in contending that this biblical history has no peer for concise and persuasive expression, for the presentation of a clear picture of historical evolution, and for the evaluation of those personalities who have appeared on the stage of history.²⁵ The authors of Joshua through 2 Kings gathered material from stories, records, and royal chronicles to produce a work with structure and unity.

      The history of Kings is presented in the form of a narrative. Since narrative is a literary creation, the credibility of the Scriptures as representing the events of the past has come under severe attack. Skeptical of narrative histories in general, various scholars have argued that little relation can exist between biblical Israel and the Israel of the Iron Age.²⁶ While not all history writing is narrative, and certainly not all narrative is historiography, narrative is an important means of portraying history. Literature and history cannot be regarded as unrelated or mutually exclusive categories.²⁷ Historical narrative is not the mere statement of discrete facts but is the creation of a sequence of events to depict past reality. Such history writing is not mere invention, since it is not possible to construct the past in just any way at all.

      Biblical historiography is in its own way as sophisticated as early modern history writing.²⁸ It distinguishes between individuals, groups, and nationalities; it understands actions as motivated by greed, jealousy, and power; it attempts to present conjunctions of events by indicating simultaneous sequences.²⁹ Events of the past are presented out of a sense that significant lessons can be learned from the past and applied to the time of writing. The partially accessible past of human interactions is broken down into causes and effects. The repetitive patterns of major events are explained in terms of divine causality.

      Literary creation and religious imagination are joined in history in biblical narrative such as that of Kings, because it purports to be accounts of things that happened in historical time.³⁰ It becomes obvious that "literary understanding is a necessary condition of historical understanding, and both literary and historical understanding are necessary conditions of competent biblical interpretation."³¹ The questions historians should ask, in understanding a narrative such as Kings, are similar to the questions that literary readers should ask.³² The task includes the identification of the hero and his quest, observing the role of the narrator and the dialogues, and following the plot and the development of the narrative structure. Attending to the literary elements of historical narrative is necessary to understanding the medium through which the lessons of history are given.

      The Process of History Writing

      UNLIKE THE FIFTH-CENTURY historian Herodotus, whose writings to explain the Persian wars earned him the reputation among later Greek historians as the father of history, the writings of the Former Prophets were left anonymous. Any knowledge of the time and circumstances of the writings must be inferred by literary analysis. Van Seters has proposed that the

      analogue to Herodotus in the Old Testament would be the Deuteronomistic Historian of Joshua to 2 Kings, seen not simply as a redactor of previously compiled blocks of material—the end of a long and complex tradio-historical process—but rather as a historian who gathered his own material, much of it in the form of disparate oral stories, but some from records and from the royal chronicles.³³

      Like Herodotus, the prose narrative within Joshua through Kings is made up of larger and smaller units in a loosely connected chain with little subordination of major and minor themes. Similar episodes are associated by analogy with interpretive introductions and summary statements rather than arranged in temporal or logical sequence.³⁴ Like Noth, van Seters believes that the original Deuteronomistic History was the creation of a single individual, but since it was anonymous, it has suffered the ignominy of being fractured into canonical books and, worse yet, of being hopelessly dissected into collections and redactions by modern scholars.

      Van Seters regards the Deuteronomistic History as the first Hebrew example of history writing, that is, the conscious development of a national history with the purpose of providing a self-identity. There were various historiographic writings before this time, that is, other writings about past events that were a resource for this history writing. These would have included chronologies of events developed from king lists, royal inscriptions such as dedications or memorial texts, and chronicles that portrayed particular historical events. He disputes the presence of early historiographic works such as the Story of Saul, the Story of David’s Rise, and the Court History or Succession Story (2 Sam. 9–20; 1 Kings 1:1–2:46)³⁵ during the early period of the kingdom of David and Solomon.

      Joshua through Kings does not make a claim to being the work of one individual and has not been preserved in a form in which it is the work of one individual. Van Seters believes that a history was produced in the exilic period to provide a national identity for Israel by developing an ideology in which kings and people needed to be obedient to the covenant of Moses. It must be asked why such a history would first be produced in the Exile.³⁶ Most notable is the prominence of preexilic perspectives and themes, especially the hope of the dynasty of David. Much can be learned from Herodotus about the method and purpose of ancient historians, which may help us to understand the Former Prophets, but the parallels that can be observed are not sufficient to establish more than a general similarity between the two works. It is too bold to identify these as being a common genre of writing. The writing of Herodotus never functioned as a prophetic proclamation, while the Hebrew composition is known only as a prophetic word canonized as Scripture.

      In the Hebrew canon the entire narrative from Genesis to Kings is presented as a continuous history.³⁷ A Deuteronomistic History seeking to develop a national identity on the basis of covenant loyalty has been incorporated in a much longer narrative. What other such sources were available in the exilic period to compose a history that concluded with the thirty-seventh year of the exile of Jehoiachin (2 Kings 25:27)? Brian Peckham maintains that the sources of the continuous history of Genesis to Kings were complete written works; these works were earlier versions of the Pentateuch and the Deuteronomistic History.³⁸ In his view the entire historical work from

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