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    High School Chemistry Handbook
    High School Chemistry Handbook
    High School Chemistry Handbook
    Ebook219 pages2 hours

    High School Chemistry Handbook

    By Angus Carmichael

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    About this ebook

    This handbook is written for any student between the ages of 15 and 19 studying Chemistry. Its content meets the core chemistry requirements of IGCSE, IBDP, A-Level and AP courses. The material will also help an undergraduate whose course requires a basic foundation in Chemistry. It offers an alternative, succinct perspective to enable students to understand key concepts and can be used as a concise reference resource or a review guide. Each topic contains comprehensive explanations supported by diagrams and worked examples. The final sections of the book hold useful reference material for experimental work and offer guidance on how to write laboratory reports. There is also a series of practice calculation questions with solutions and a glossary of key terms.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAngus Carmichael
    Release dateOct 19, 2012
    ISBN9781301763245
    High School Chemistry Handbook
    Author

    Angus Carmichael

    Angus Carmichael studied Chemistry at Oxford University earning MChem and DPhil qualifications. He spent three years teaching GCSE, A-Level and Scottish Higher Level Chemistry in Edinburgh (Merchiston Castle School) and fulfilled the requirements of his UK teaching license. Following this he moved to an international school in Tanzania (International School of Tanganyika) for four years to teach the International Baccalaureate program; MYP Science, Theory of Knowledge, SL and HL Chemistry. He then accepted a post in Malaysia (International School of Kuala Lumpur) where he continued to teach IB Chemistry and also assist students preparing for the AP exams. He became an assistant moderator of Internal Assessment practical work. He currently lives in Aberdeen with his lovely wife and two children where he works as an IBDP Chemistry teacher and MS/HS Principal at the International School of Aberdeen.

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    Book preview

    High School Chemistry Handbook - Angus Carmichael

    High School Chemistry Handbook (2nd Edition)

    By Dr A Carmichael

    Copyright 2012 Angus Carmichael

    Smashwords Edition

    A first edition of this book is available in print

    Smashwords Edition, License Notes

    This ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each recipient. If you’re reading this book and did not purchase it, or it was not purchased for your use only, then please return to Smashwords.com and purchase your own copy. Thank you for respecting the hard work of this author.

    Contents

    Topic 1 - Formula and Equation Writing

    Topic 2 - Atomic Theory

    Topic 3 - Quantitative Chemistry

    Topic 4 - Bonding

    Topic 5 - Matter

    Topic 6 - The Periodic Table

    Topic 7 - Reaction Kinetics

    Topic 8 - Energetics

    Topic 9 - Equilibrium

    Topic 10 - Acid Chemistry

    Topic 11 - Redox Chemistry

    Topic 12 - Organic Chemistry

    Topic 13 - Experimenting and Recording in the Laboratory

    Calculation Question Bank

    Solutions

    Glossary

    Topic 1 – Formula and Equation Writing

    The ability to write formula and balance equations is an essential skill in chemistry and forms the starting point for solving most problems.

    Writing Formula

    Chemical compounds typically consist of one of two endings; -ide and –ate. With the exception of hydroxides, a compound ending –ide will be made up of just two elements (e.g. potassium iodide, KI) and those ending –ate will also contain the element oxygen (e.g. magnesium sulfate, MgSO4)

    Chemical names often give an indication as to the formula of a compound. A good example of this is carbon dioxide (CO2). These prefixes can be used to quickly write a formula.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_m49c4ad2b.jpg

    Where a formula is not obvious, a system of combining powers can be used to work out the most likely ratio of elements. The system is based on ideas involving electron transfer and sharing that will be explained in Topic 4. It begins by assigning combining powers to the columns in the periodic table.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_m7891c8a4.jpg

    Transition metals (elements in the middle of the table) are able to show a variety of combining powers and as such have Roman numerals that show the combining power (oxidation number) involved. For example the combining power of cobalt in cobalt IV chloride is 4, but 2 in cobalt II iodide.

    Compound or polyatomic ions are groups of atoms that are covalently bonded but have an overall charge. These species can also be assigned combining powers based on their charges. Some will become more familiar once the chemistry of acids has been studied.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_m3df19f66.jpg

    Having identified the elements involved and their combining powers, a crossing over rule can be used to construct the formula. In this method the powers are switched and if a common factor exists then the ratio of elements is cancelled down. Brackets are used, as in maths, for multiple groups of compound ions. For example, in magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, there are two hydroxide ions for every one magnesium ion.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_m5c7c27e6.jpg

    Balancing Equations

    Balanced equations show how chemicals react to form new products and contain the same number of each type of atom on both sides of the equation. Only whole numbers (coefficients) can be added to the front of formula to achieve this. It is also worth remembering that seven of the elements exist in their natural, uncombined forms as diatomic molecules (H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2).

    An example of the steps used to balance an equation is shown below for the reaction between iron and oxygen to form iron III oxide.

    Step 1 Write in the symbols for the chemicals. Use combining powers where necessary. Looking at the equation it is apparent that the numbers of each type of atom on each side of the equation are not the same – it needs balancing.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_m1be248a4.jpg

    Step 2 The odd number of oxygen atoms on the right hand side of the equation and even number on the left will make balancing tricky. Address that problem first.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_m23efcc68.jpg

    Step 3 Now balance the Fe atoms.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_m7c529dad.jpg

    Step 4 And finally the O atoms.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_157ba5a3.jpg

    State symbols should be included in balanced equations whenever possible. These letters in brackets indicate whether a chemical is solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g) or dissolved in water (aq). For the example above, the equation then becomes.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_2fa163ee.jpg

    [return to top]

    Topic 2 – Atomic Theory

    Understanding the structure of an atom, notably its electron arrangement, will enable an appreciation of how it is likely to react with other elements. Its electronic arrangement also determines its place in the periodic table and is central in determining its physical properties.

    The Structure of the Atom and Isotopes

    Atoms are made up of protons, electrons and neutrons. The number of protons (also called the atomic number or proton number, Z) determines the element’s symbol and name. Positive protons and neutral neutrons bind together to form a nucleus around which the negative electrons orbit. For an electrically neutral atom, the number of protons and electrons will be identical. An ion is formed when electrons are lost or gained. This will be explained further in Topic 4.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_4457d84e.png

    The total number of protons and neutrons, each with relative mass 1, constitutes the mass number, A. Electrons weigh 1/1860th of these subatomic particles and can therefore be thought of as having negligible weight.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_735428f7.png

    Isotopes are elements that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, and hence different mass numbers. Examples, with the most abundant isotope bracketed, include ¹⁴C (¹²C) measured in dating organic matter, ⁶⁰Co (⁵⁹Co) used in radiotherapy and ¹³¹I (¹²⁷I) used as a medical tracer. These unstable nuclei decay by emitting radiation at a steady rate. This steady rate gives the source a half-life value that corresponds to the time taken for the level of radioactivity to drop to half its original value.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_5e95d957.png

    Radioactive substances either emit alpha particles (a helium nucleus), beta particles (electrons that come from the change of a neutron to a proton) or gamma rays (high energy photons). In the first two instances, equations can be written and decay products predicted by simple book keeping of mass and proton numbers.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_m28751afd.png

    Evidence for Energy Levels

    Evidence for the existence of energy levels comes from data on ionization energies. The ionization energy corresponds to the energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of the atoms in the gas phase. Electrons can be ionized from the atom sequentially starting with the easiest to remove, outermost electron that feels the smallest pull from the nucleus. The sketch of the successive ionization energies of sodium shows a definite ‘step’ where each new energy level is started. The pattern suggests there is one electron in the outermost energy level, then eight in the next and finally two electrons in the level close to the nucleus.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_5c42965a.png

    Further evidence for the presence of distinct energy levels (and sub levels) comes from the trend in first ionization energy across a period. This is discussed further in Topic 6.

    When light passes through a prism a continuous spectrum of all the colours is observed. The full range of wavelengths is apparent with no gaps (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet). However, when energy is supplied to individual elements only emissions at specific wavelengths are seen; there are gaps. These wavelengths are characteristic of a particular element and constitute a line spectrum.

    When a sample of hydrogen atoms is supplied with energy (for example from a heat source or electrical current) the electron in each atom is excited to a higher energy level. When the electron drops back down to a lower level it re-emits the energy in the form of light. The energy levels are labelled using the principal quantum number, n, with n = 1 being the lowest energy orbital, closest to the nucleus.

    When an electron falls back from its excited state to the lowest energy level (n = 1) it represents a larger energy change than when it moves down to the level above this (n = 2). For hydrogen, only electrons dropping back to this second energy level (shown in the diagram) give out radiation of a wavelength in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Transitions down to the third level in hydrogen represent a smaller amount of energy and produce electromagnetic radiation in the infrared region. The transitions to n = 1 produce a series of lines in the ultraviolet region.

    tmp_ab6d9127442b79f3051597113a8a8994_uCxVpR_html_m4317691b.png

    The lines in the spectrum get progressively closer together as differences in energy between levels become less and less. Eventually a convergence point is reached. This is where there is effectively no difference in energy between the n  2 and the (n – 1)  2 transitions. If an electron is given the amount of energy that corresponds to the point at which the energy levels converge, the electron no longer feels any influence from the nucleus, and it has been ionized.

    The frequency at which convergence occurs can be used to calculate the ionization energy of the element. Hydrogen has one electron that occupies the first energy level (n = 1). The convergence point for transitions down to the lowest energy level occurs at a frequency of 3.3 × 10¹⁵ s-1. Using the equation E = hv (where h is Planck’s constant, h = 6.63 × 10-34 Js) the energy difference can be found which is 2.195 × 10-18 J per atom. In a mole there are 6.02 × 10²³ atoms and therefore the energy change per mole, the ionization energy, is 1320 kJmol-1.

    Electron Arrangements

    As described above, electrons exist in energy levels that are filled up in order of increasing energy i.e. the level closest to the nucleus is occupied first (Aufbau Principle). For the first twenty elements a simple view can be taken that the first energy level holds two electrons and subsequent levels or shells hold up to 8. This means the electron arrangement of beryllium could

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