The Practically Cheating Calculus Handbook

How to find critical numbers

A critical number is a number c that either makes the derivative equal to zero or it makes the derivative undefined. Critical numbers indicate where a change in the graph is taking place — for example, an increasing to decreasing point or a decreasing to increasing point. The number c also has to be in the domain of the original function (the one you took the derivative of). Finding critical numbers is an easy task if your algebra skills are strong; unfortunately, if you have weak algebra skills you might have trouble finding critical numbers. Why? Because each function is different, and algebra skills will help you to spot undefined domain possibilities such as division by zero. If your algebra isn’t up to par — now is the time to restudy the old rules!

Sample question: find the critical numbers for the following function:

Step 2: figure out where the derivative equals zero. This is where a little algebra knowledge comes in handy, as each function is going to be different. For this particular function, the derivative equals zero when -18x = 0 (making the numerator zero), so one critical number for x is 0 (because -18(0)=0). Another set of critical numbers can be found by setting the denominator equal to zero, you’ll find out where the derivative is undefined:

Step 3: plug any critical numbers you found in step 2 into your original function to check that they are in the domain of the original function. For this particular function, the critical numbers were 0, -3 and 3.

Therefore, 0 is a critical number. For +3 or -3, if you try to put these into the denominator of the original function, you’ll get division by zero, which is undefined. That means these numbers are not in the domain of the original function and are not critical numbers. That’s it!

How to check the continuity of a function — general rules

A continuous function has a graph without gaps, splits, or holes. In other words, you could draw a line of the graph on paper without lifting the pencil. You sometimes need to check for continuity of a function in order to perform some operations in calculus, such as applying Rolle’s theorem. Polynomial functions, rational functions, power functions, the trigonometric functions sin(x) and cos(x), logarithmic functions, the function ex and exponential functions are all continuous functions over the entire domain. There are a few general rules you can refer to when trying to determine if your function is continuous. For other functions, you need to do a little detective work.

Step 1: draw the graph with a pencil to check for the continuity of a function. If your pencil stays on the paper from the left to right of the entire graph, without lifting the pencil, your function is continuous. In other words, if your graph has gaps, holes or is a split graph, your graph isn’t continuous.

Step 2: figure out if your function is one of the following types: a power function, exponential function, logarithmic function, polynomial function, rational function (the ratio of two polynomial functions), the function ex or a trigonometric function sin(x) or cos(x). If it is, then there’s no need to go further; your function is continuous.

Step 3: check if your function is the sum difference, or product of a continuous function listed in step 2. If it is, your function is continuous. For example, sin(x)*cos(x) is the product of two continuous functions and so is continuous.

Step 4: check quotient functions for the possibility of zero as a denominator. The quotient f(x)/g(x) of continuous functions is continuous at all points x where the denominator isn’t zero.

That’s it!

How to figure out function composition

In order to figure out function composition (or to decompose a function), you must be familiar with the eight common function types and with basic function transformations (see the article on how to graph transformations), like what a negative sign does to a function (flips it about an axis) or what happens if you add a constant (it shifts to the left that number of units). In calculus, composite functions are usually represented by f(x) and g(x), where f(x) is a function that takes some kind of action on g(x). Being able to split a function into two can be useful in calculus if the original function is too complicated to work with.

Sample problem 1: identify the functions in the equation f(g(x)) = -(x – 3)² + 5

Step 1: identify the original function(s). The original function is either going to be: linear, polynomial, square (quadratic), absolute value, square root, rational, sine, or cosine.

In this example, the original function is the square – (x – 3)² (the square – (x – 3) has been shifted up five units).

Step 2: write the functions using standard terminology (f(x) and g(x)). F(g(x)) = -(x – 3)² + 5, so: g(x) = – (x – 3)²

F(x) = x + 5

Sample problem 2: identify the functions in the equation f(g(x)) = (x + 2 / x)³

Step 1: look for the original function f(x) — see step 1 of Sample problem 1 above. In this example, the original function isn’t an obvious example of a basic function type. However, while the function f(x) = x + 2/x isn’t a basic type, the second function g(x) — x³ is (it’s a cubic polynomial). So: f(g(x)) = (x + 2 / x)² f(x) = x + 2 /x g(x) = x³

That’s it!

Tip: when trying to find composite functions, look for the simplest transformation, usually involving x and a cube, square, simple addition, division, multiplication, subtraction etc.. This simple transformation is either going to be f(x) or g(x).

How to graph transformations

Once you’ve committed graphs of standard functions to memory, your ability to graph transformations is simplified. Sine, cosine, rational, absolute value, square root, cube (polynomial), square (quadratic) and linear are the eight basic function types; each has their own domain, range, and shape. When you transform one of these graphs, you shift it up, down, to the left, or to the right. Being able to visualize a transformation in your head and sketch it on paper is a valuable tool in calculus. Why? Once you’ve mastered the basics in calculus and move on to 3d images, sometimes the only way to solve a problem is to visualize the transformation in your head. While graphing calculators can be a valuable tool in developing your calculus knowledge, eventually the calculator will only be able to help you so much.

Sample problem 1: sketch the graph of x³ shifted two units to the right and write the equation for that graph.

Step 1: visualize the graph of x³, which is a cube (polynomial).

Step 2: visualize the transformation. All you’re doing is shifting the graph two units to the right. Here’s what the transformed graph looks like:

Step 3: write the equation. For any function, f(x), the graph of f(x-c) is the graph shifted two units to the right and the graph of f(x+c) is the graph shifted two units to the right. The question asks for two units to the right, so the final equation is f(x) = (x – 2)³. Caution: the graph of x² – 2 moves the graph down two units, not right!

Sample problem 2: sketch the graph of x² + 2.

Step 1: visualize the graph of x², which is one of the eight basic function types.

Step 2: sketch the graph. For any function, f(x), a graph f(x) + c is the graph shifted up the y-axis and a graph f(x) – c is a graph shifted down the y-axis. Therefore, x² + 2 is the graph of x2 shifted two units up the y-axis.

That’s it!

Tip: you can also flip graphs on the x-axis by adding a negative coefficient. For example,, while x² is a parabola above the x-axis, -x² is a mirror image over the x-axis.

How to find the domain and range of a function

The domain is the set of x- values that can be inputted into a function, while a range is the set of y- values that are outputted for the domain. Many functions have an infinite set for the domain: for example, you