The Warbler Guide

The

Warbler Guide

Tom Stephenson and Scott Whittle

Drawings by Catherine Hamilton

Copyright © 2013 by Tom Stephenson and Scott Whittle

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should be sent to Permissions, Princeton University Press

Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street,

Princeton, New Jersey 08540

In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press,

6 Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX20 1TW

press.princeton.edu

Cover photograph Northern Parula © Robert Royse

All Rights Reserved

ISBN (pbk.) 978-0-691-15482-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2012950887

British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available

This book has been composed in Sabon LT Std and Gill Sans

Printed on acid-free paper. ∞

Printed in Thailand

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CONTENTS

How to Use This Book

Icons and Key Terms

How to Use the Maps

Topographic Tour

What to Notice on a Warbler

Aging and Sexing Warblers

Understanding Sonograms

How to Listen to Warbler Songs

Learning Chip and Flight Calls

Visual Finder Guides

Warbler Song Finder Charts

Chip Call Finder

Flight Call Finder

Species Accounts

American Redstart Male

American Redstart F/1yM

Audubon’s Bright

Audubon’s Drab

Bay-breasted Bright

Bay-breasted Drab

Black-and-white

Blackburnian Bright

Blackburnian Drab

Blackpoll Spring

Blackpoll Fall

Black-throated Blue Male

Black-throated Blue Female

Black-throated Gray

Black-throated Green

Blue-winged

Brewster’s

Canada

Cape May Bright

Cape May Drab

Cerulean

Chestnut-sided Bright

Chestnut-sided Drab

Colima

Common Yellowthroat AdM

Common Yellowthroat F/1yM

Connecticut Bright

Connecticut Drab

Crescent-chested

Fan-tailed

Golden-cheeked

Golden-crowned

Golden-winged

Grace’s

Gray-crowned Yellowthroat

Hermit

Hooded

Kentucky

Kirtland’s

Lawrence’s

Louisiana Waterthrush

Lucy’s

MacGillivray’s Bright

MacGillivray’s Drab

Magnolia Bright

Magnolia Drab

Mourning Bright

Mourning Drab

Myrtle Bright

Myrtle Drab

Nashville

Northern Parula

Northern Waterthrush

Olive Warbler

Orange-crowned

Ovenbird

Painted Redstart

Palm

Pine

Prairie

Prothonotary

Red-faced

Rufous-capped

Slate-throated

Swainson’s

Tennessee

Townsend’s

Tropical Parula

Virginia’s

Wilson’s

Worm-eating

Yellow

Yellow-breasted Chat

Yellow-rumped Bright

Yellow-rumped Drab

Yellow-throated

Similar Non-warbler Species

Hybrid Warblers

Quiz and Review

Warblers in Flight

North American Warbler Taxonomy

Measurements

Silhouettes

Habitat and Behavior

Glossary

Resources

Acknowledgments

Photo Credits

Index

The

Warbler Guide

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

Principal Sections of the Book

This book is designed to help you quickly and confidently identify the species and, when possible, the age and sex of any warbler you encounter in the United States and Canada. In light of this goal we have included the following sections:

Visual Finders are designed to help you quickly identify any warbler you see. These pages present the typical views you will encounter in the field: face, side, 45-degree, and underside. Each Visual Finder is organized by similar-looking plumages and some show just eastern or western birds. Since we include all similar species with each species account, it is usually necessary only to find an image close to the bird in question and then go right to that species’ Species Account. Even if the initial choice turns out to be incorrect, the Comparison Species section of the Species Accounts should narrow the ID down to the correct warbler. Use the visual finders not only to identify unknown species but also to test and review your warbler identification skills.

Song and Call Finders help identify a vocalizing warbler and include songs, chip calls, and flight calls. The vocalizations are organized by similar-sounding species. Songs are further grouped using a simple and very effective tree system designed to narrow down the choices to one or a few species in the shortest number of steps. There is more information on how to use this section in How to Listen to Warbler Songs.

Topographic Tour and What to Notice on a Warbler provide guides to the key feather groups and features that are important for warbler identification. Some of the topics, such as feather contrast and understanding the undertail, are often overlooked by birders but are very valuable ID tools.

The Species Accounts include images of each species from three angles along with additional photos and notes on all similar species. This presentation should lead to the correct species even if the initial ID choice is incorrect. These pages also provide other important information including spring and fall migration paths, subspecies ranges, behavior and color impression icons, and other key ID points.

Aging and Sexing Sections in the Species Accounts help establish a bird’s age and sex when possible. These sections are separate to avoid confusing the ID points for aging and sexing with the ID points needed for species identification.

Vocalization Information in the Species Accounts includes sonograms and direct comparisons with similar-sounding species. The ID points are based on a new, objective system for analyzing bird vocalizations that uses simple, easy-to-hear criteria, including a song’s structure, quality, and other characteristics, and avoid traditional, often clumsy, transliterations. To take full advantage of this system, be sure to read How to Listen to Warbler Songs and Understanding Sonograms.

Quizzes offer a number of real-world ID problems to solve. Active testing greatly aids retention, so use this section to explore and reinforce your warbler ID knowledge.

Glossary. We have tried to keep all terminology as clear and jargon-free as possible. Of course technical terms are often needed for both precision and economy, and we have employed some of these as necessary. To save space, we have also had to use a few abbreviations, such as UnTC for undertail coverts. Be sure to check the glossary for any terms you find unfamiliar. You can also use this section as a reference for the Song Analysis terminology and for abbreviations for the Aging and Sexing sections. The Topographic Tour is also a good resource if you are unclear about any of the terms used for feather groups or bare parts.

Other sections include Similar Non-Warbler Species, North American Warbler Taxonomy, and Flight Shots.

Alphabetical Order for the Species Accounts

To make each species fast to find, we have decided to put the Species Accounts in alphabetical order. This is a departure from the taxonomic organization of many prior field guides and deserves a note.

As shown in the North American Warbler Taxonomy section, the taxonomy of warblers has changed significantly in the last few years, and some species, such as Yellow-breasted Chat, are still not settled. If we were to follow current taxonomic order, we would necessarily change the prior, more familiar sequence, which would make some species more difficult to find in this book.

Also, the traditional order is actually treated very differently in many popular field guides. Species such as Cerulean, Northern Parula, and Palm Warblers are found in different locations in these books. In many previous field guides, genera were placed together so that similar-looking species could be more easily compared. The Warbler Guide accomplishes this by placing all similar species, including those in the same (or possibly now, new) genera, together in the Species Accounts for each relevant species.

For these reasons, we feel that placing North American warblers in alphabetical order will make all species much faster to find without sacrificing any comparative benefits.

Online Resources

At www.press.princeton.edu/titles/9968.html, we have included additional supporting materials such as quizzes, a chart of comparative song statistics, some guidelines for beginning birders, and other information.

ICONS AND KEY TERMS

To reduce the amount of text and to make the book faster to use in the field, in the Species Accounts we use various icons and codes, which are defined below.

Shape and Color Icons  It is often possible to identify or greatly narrow down an ID using just the shape and color of a bird. These can be important marks especially when a bird is seen very briefly or for picking out the rarer species in a large flock. For each species we have included shape and color icons to help sensitize your eye to these important warbler characteristics.

Quick Range Icon  provides a fast way to see if the species is found in the eastern United States (east of the Rockies), western United States, the whole region, or in a very limited area (such as Big Bend, Texas).

Preferred Habitat Icon indicates which habitat(s) the bird tends to prefer. Note that during migration many species utilize a wider range of habitats than they do on their breeding grounds.

Behavioral Icon indicates typical behavior, an important characteristic that can often help quickly narrow an unknown bird to one or two species.

Song Mnemonics  present an image that can aid in memorizing the species’ song. Creating an image that connects a bird’s song to its name can greatly assist in remembering and recognizing the song in the field. When learning a new vocalization, it’s not enough to know that you’ve studied a song sounding like Please Please Please to meetcha. You also have to tie that song to the species’ name. If you can visualize someone wearing a chestnut vest and a yellow cap saying this phrase, then your studies will translate better in the field.

For most species we propose an image that, for us, ties the structure of their song to their name. Since these connections are very subjective, we encourage you to use these as rough guidelines and to create your own images.

Song Analysis Symbols  notate sonograms. As described in the section How to Listen to Warbler Songs, we have defined several terms that help us objectively describe the structure and quality of warbler vocalizations. Be sure to read that section to fully understand how we use these important terms. You can also find a full definition of each term in the glossary. In the sonogram layouts, we use the following symbols to highlight some of these structural characteristics and make them faster to scan and compare:

HOW TO USE THE MAPS

Migration Routes

Many warblers follow a similar route in spring and fall migration. However, some warbler species take different routes. As a result, one is unlikely to find a Connecticut Warbler in Central Park in May, but quite possibly could in late September. For this reason we are using two maps for some species, one each for its spring and fall migration paths.

Early, Middle, and Late Waves

From the arrival of the first migrant warbler to the departure of the final bird, migration lasts for a similar time span from year to year. In spring, northbound birds hit the southern edge of the United States first, and reach their northern regions about two or three weeks later. Fall migration is more drawn out than spring migration by a couple of weeks and is slightly less protracted in the northern areas, whereas spring migration is slightly shorter in the southern United States.

Rather than trying to establish precise migration dates for each species across the entire United States and Canada, we have broken both spring and fall into three equal periods, which we classify as early, middle, and late. In that way we establish a general sense of what’s probable at any given time, regardless of the specific location or the vagaries of weather patterns. By using the range map and migration icon, general dates can be established for the occurrence of a species in a given location.

Time Spans

Some warbler species have an extended migration schedule, with individuals showing up over the course of many weeks, while other species seem to come all at once. The gray area in the migration icon indicates the length of migration for some species. Note that darker segments in the icon indicate a greater volume of birds.

Subspecies

Several warbler species have one or more recognized subspecies (races). Some of these are difficult to separate in the field and others have recognizable plumage differences. On the maps, we show the distribution of subspecies. We also address the important field identification characteristics for each separable subspecies in the Species Accounts.

TOPOGRAPHIC TOUR

1. PRIMARIES Outer nine flight flight feathers; when folded form bottom layer of stacked wing feathers and protrude beyond tertials and secondaries (this protrusion is called primary projection)

2. SECONDARIES Inner half of flight feathers; when folded, form middle layer of stacked wing feathers

3. PRIMARY COVERTS Cover bases of primaries

4. GREATER SECONDARY COVERTS Usually abbreviated to greater coverts; cover bases of secondaries; when feather tips contrast with feather bases form bottom line of wing bars

5. MEDIAN SECONDARY COVERTS Usually abbreviated to median coverts; cover base of greater coverts; when feather tips contrast feather bases, forms top line of wing bars

6. TERTIALS Innermost feathers of wing; when wing is folded, the top three stacked wing feathers

WHAT TO NOTICE ON A WARBLER

This section illuminates important warbler characteristics that can be used to significantly accelerate the identification process. There are five sections: Contrast and Color; Size, Shape, and Behavior; The Face; The Body; and The Undertail.

Section 1: Contrast and Color

Contrast One of the primary ways to separate warblers is by contrast. The birds in the Visual Finders are easily separated into two categories: high-contrast birds, which have bold markings and colors, and low-contrast birds, which are drab or plain. There are two basic types of contrast: tonal contrast, when adjacent areas are brighter and darker; and color contrast, where different colors intersect (for example, black and yellow are highly contrasting, while yellow and olive are not). These two types of contrast are not mutually exclusive—often a bird with high tonal contrast also has strong color contrast.

Orange-crowned Low-contrast overall; mostly the same tone and color.

American Redstart High-contrast bird in both color and tonality.

Yellow Bright-colored, low-contrast bird.

Black-and-white No color, high contrast.

The well-defined, high-contrast throat of a Common Yellowthroat is especially distinct when color contrast is removed from the equation.

Nashville Higher color contrast, but low tonal contrast in body, with contrasty eyering.

Common Yellowthroat Low color contrast, but isolated, tonally high-contrast throat.

General contrast manifests in several ways on a bird, one of which is the contrast between the lower body and the upper body and wings.

Prothonotary High contrast between the lower and upper halves of the bird.

Hooded Mid-contrast between the upper and lower body.

Yellow Low-contrast body overall.

Hooding occurs when the head color contrasts with the body color.

MacGillivray’s High-contrast hood.

Orange-crowned Low-contrast hood.

Wing bars are created by white tips on the greater and median coverts and can be a striking and very important ID characteristic. There are more subtle but equally important contrasting covert patterns in the wings that are also worth noticing.

Blackpoll Strong, contrasting wing bars.

Palm Buffy edging subtly contrasts with rest of feathers, creating diagnostic pattern.

Yellow Yellow on olive is a low-contrast combination, but wing bars are still distinct.

Prairie Yellow wing bars on gray or olive makes for distinctive mid-contrast wing bars.

Facial contrast is sometimes useful in separating similar birds. Townsend’s and Black-throated Green warblers are similarly shaped; both have black streaking in the sides, a black throat, and both are masked and capped. In fact, at first their faces seem very similar, but the degree of contrast becomes a key ID point.

Townsend’s Auriculars and cap, high-contrast black on yellow; always dark throughout.

Black-throated Green auriculars and cap, low contrast olive on yellow; auriculars always lighter in center.

Likewise, Orange-crowned and Tennessee are similar in structure and coloration. While Tennessee has white undertail coverts and Orange-crowned has yellow undertail coverts, facial contrast can be a quicker way to separate them.

Orange-crowned Lower contrast, even look to facial tones, washed overall in yellow and olive.

Tennessee Higher facial contrast overall: lighter areas lighter and darker areas darker; eyeline and supercilium more pronounced.

Many warblers have bright, contrasting facial features in spring that make them easy to identify—Cape May, Blackburnian, Prairie, and Wilson’s, for example. These same patterns are often present and equally diagnostic in the fall, but in a lower-contrast form.

Blackburnian, spring Shape of high-contrast cheek patch is diagnostic.

Blackburnian, fall Cheek patch pattern basically same, but lower contrast.

Color  One of the delightful things about warblers is their color, which can quickly lead to an accurate identification. Note, however, that more than half of the warblers in this book lack any really distinctive colors, so it is also important to be aware of qualities like contrast and shape, and markings like wing bars and streaking.

Diagnostic colors occur on a few birds and can lead to an instant ID.

Prothonotary Distinctive golden hue, contrasting blue wings/olive back.

Blackburnian, spring Flame-orange face unmistakable.

It is often helpful to think of not one color, but rather of a combination of colors, because certain color combinations are sometimes unique to a species.

Northern Parula Powder-blue head, green back patch, yellow throat.

Cerulean Bright blue hood, white throat.

Worm-eating Brown mustard head with black stripes.

For many species it’s important to notice subtle variations of color.

Yellow-throated Gray hood and back are distinctive cool, blue-gray shade, with white wing bars.

Golden-winged Gray head and body are warmer yellow tone, with yellow wing bars.

Subtle color differences can be an excellent starting point for identification. Note the different types of blue here in four species of warbler:

Northern Parula Powder blue.

Canada Slate blue.

Cerulean Sky blue.

Black-throated Blue Ocean blue.

Lighting conditions can strongly affect a bird’s appearance. At sunrise or sunset, all birds seem warm, with unexpected yellow or pink tones.

Black-and-white Seen in early dawn light, looks orangey-pink; often appears bluish in flight in normal daylight.

Section 2: Size, Shape, Habitat, and Behavior

Before focusing on the specifics of plumage, it is a good practice to look at size, shape, and behavior. Like a sculptor starting with a block of marble, it is critical in identification to work on the most general characteristics first and then proceed to the fine details.

Size Size is especially useful for separating warblers from other species, such as larger orioles, tanagers, and vireos. The following silhouettes are shown in accurate proportion to each other.

Scarlet Tanager 7 in., significantly larger; also note blunter, larger bill and longer tail; more vertically perched.

Yellow Warbler 5 in., smaller; also note smaller bill and shorter tail; perches more horizontally.

Baltimore Oriole 8.75 in., significantly larger; also note long, decurved bill and longer tail; more vertically perched.

Red-eyed Vireo 6 in., larger; also note heavier, larger bill and more pronounced head.

Many warblers are of similar size: small warblers are around 4.5 in. long, average-size warblers are around 5 in., and large ones can be 5.5 in. or larger. Sometimes these size differences can help differentiate similar warbler species without one ever having to go into plumage specifics. Note that size is often noticed through a bird’s movements: larger birds tend to be slower moving, while very small birds are often quick and flitting.

Louisiana Waterthrush Largest of the warblers, 6 in. and 0.74 oz. (15.2 cm, 20.9 g).

Lucy’s Smallest of the warblers, 4.25 in. and 0.23 oz. (10.8 cm, 6.5 g).

Virginia’s Small and active, 4.6 in. (12 cm).

Colima Similar to Virginia’s but 1 in. longer at 5.7 in. (14.5 cm).

Connecticut Large, slow-moving ground dweller, 5.7 in. (14.5 cm).

Nashville Smallish, very active, 4.75 in. (12 cm).

Shape Like size, shape is most important when separating warblers from other non-warbler species. The following silhouettes are all sized the same (despite different actual sizes) to emphasize the differences in shape.

Yellow Warbler Average warbler body size and bill, shortish tail.

Kinglet Finer bill, proportionally large head.

House Sparrow Blunt, conical bill, distinct head, bulkier overall.

Gnatcatcher Very long tail, fine bill, long legs.

Differences between warbler shapes can be more subtle. Differences do exist, though, and with careful attention these can be quite useful.

Yellow-breasted Chat Large bill with curved culmen, bulky overall, head distinct.*

Yellow-rumped Large head, squarish, bulky body.

Pine More elongate, longer tail, longer bill than Blackpoll.

Blackpoll Shorter bill, deeper chest, shorter tail, plumper looking than Pine.

Similarities are also notable: many closely related warbler species are similarly shaped.

Nashville genus Oreothlypis Small with a fine bill.

Orange-crowned genus Oreothlypis Small with a fine bill.

*Yellow-breasted Chat is very likely not a warbler, based on DNA research, but is still grouped with them in some taxonomic lists.

Habitat is useful in terms of probability. A warbler high in a tree is most likely not a Common Yellowthroat (although it can occur there), and a warbler walking along a streambed is unlikely to be a Cerulean.

Waterthrush Most regularly found along bodies of water and spends much of its time on the ground.

Red-faced Usually at higher elevations and only in the southwestern United States.

Prothonotary Rarely seen outside of wet woods or swampy habitat.

Cerulean Rarely low to the ground on breeding grounds (although sometimes it is low in migration).

Behavior is an excellent starting place in identification. Non-warbler species often behave quite differently from warblers, and some warbler behavior is diagnostic.

Connecticut Regular ground dweller and walks rather than hops, unlike most other warblers.

Black-and-white Characteristically creeps along tree trunks and branches, probing with long bill for insects.

Redstart Often flashes tail and wings while feeding.

Yellow-rumped Often flocks together, especially in fall and winter.

Section 3: The Face

Almost every warbler in North America can be identified by face alone. The more sensitive your eye becomes to facial marks, the better able you will be to ID warblers, especially when only partial views are available. This section addresses cheek patches, masks, eyerings and eye-arcs, superciliums, top-of-head markings, bills, and throats.

Cheek patches, or auriculars, are contrastingly darker areas behind and below the eye.

Blackburnian Distinctive triangular cheek patch.

Cape May Ovoid, rufous cheek patch.

Wilson’s, female Subtle but distinctive cheek patch, similar in color to nape, outlined above by pale supercilium.

Hooded, female Very faint cheek patch, dark hood, higher facial contrast than Wilson’s.

Masks and other black facial marks are found on about a third of the warblers discussed in this book, often providing distinct ID points.

Golden-winged Black face patch creates a Zorro mask effect.

Blackburnian Dark facial marks form a triangular pattern.

Prairie These facial marks are distinct but not easily categorized.

Black-throated Blue Black face but not strongly contrasting due to dark hood and back.

These four black-throated warblers each have distinctive facial markings.

Black-throated Green low-contrast cheek patch and eyeline, creating faded olive facial pattern.

Hermit No facial marks, blank-faced look.

Townsend’s Black eyeline and cheek patch create contrasty facial pattern.

Golden-cheeked Dark eyeline (mostly behind eye), no cheek patch.

Eyerings and eye-arcs are the circles or partial circles around some warbler’s eyes.

Orange-crowned Thin, low-contrast, subtle eye-arcs.

Canada Bright, contrasting, wide eyering.

These three elusive, ground-dwelling warblers are separable as adults by their eyerings, eye-arcs, or lack thereof.

Connecticut, adult Pronounced eyering.

MacGillivray’s, adult Thick eye-arcs.

Mourning, adult No eyering.

In each of these pairs, the eyering helps separate two similar warbler species:

Prothonotary No eyering: beady-eyed.

Yellow Subtle yellow eyering.

Nashville Strong, contrasting, white eyering.

Common Yellowthroat Subtle, thinner, duller eyering.

In these examples, the eyering merges with the supraloral area to create a goggled effect.

Canada Yellow goggles.

Yellow-breasted Chat White goggles.

Eyelines are dark lines through the eye, often extending on both sides.

Yellow Plain yellow face, no eyeline.

Golden-cheeked Plain yellow face with eyeline.

Some drab fall warblers have differences in their eyelines, which contribute to different facial expressions:

Pine Faint eyeline darker in front of eyes (lores).

Bay-breasted Visible eyeline, but short and fine.

Blackpoll Longer, wider eyeline.

Lores are partial eyelines in front of the eye, and post-ocular lines are partial eyelines behind the eye.

American Restart Eyeline appears in front of eye: dark lores.

Lucy’s Pale lores, i.e., no dark in front of eye.

Black-and-white Eyeline is behind eye: called a post-ocular line.

The supercilium is a light contrasting area above the eye that often creates an eyebrow effect.

Tennessee Narrow, low-contrast supercilium.

Worm-eating Bright, contrasting supercilium.

Northern Waterthrush More even supercilium, tapering at back of head, same color as underbody.*

Louisiana Waterthrush Flared supercilium, wraps farther around back of head, white.*

Yellow-rumped Broken supercilium intercepted by brighter eyering.

Palm Complete, wider, more contrasty supercilium.

*Note: The shape of the supercilium is a classic mark used to separate the otherwise similar Louisiana and Northern waterthrushes. While the Northern Waterthrush generally has an even-width or rear-tapering supercilium, the Louisiana can show a flared supercilium, which is narrow at the lores, gets progressively wider behind the eye, then sharply tapers at the back of the head, and typically extends all the way to the intersection of the head and back. We say generally because the apparent shape and length of the supercilium can be tricky to see and can change with the bird’s posture. There is more information on separating these birds, including marks that we like even better than the supercilium, on the waterthush pages.

Top-of-head markings Capped, hooded, and striped are terms for the contrasting color area on top of some warblers’ heads. Hooded birds have a colored head that contrasts with the body, capped birds have a dark upper head that contrasts with the face, and birds with striped heads have contrasting lines on their upper head.

Wilson’s Black, beret-like cap inspires the mnemonic Mr. Wilson is from Paris.

Wilson’s, female (eastern) Faint cap still visible.

Connecticut Strongly hooded.

Hooded Hooded with a yellow face.

Ovenbird Orange and black head stripes.

Worm-eating Brown-mustard and black head stripes.

Each of these colored caps is distinctive.

Palm, spring Pronounced rufous cap.

Golden-winged Yellow cap, gray nape.

Bay-breasted, adult male Brick-red cap, diagnostic.

Chestnut-sided, fall Green upper head connects with back, so not technically capped but useful.

Chestnut-sided, spring Yellow cap.

Red-faced Black cap with earflaps, diagnostic.

Bills vary among warblers, especially across genera. For example, warblers in the genus Geothlypis, which includes Mourning, MacGillivray’s, and Kentucky, all have relatively large bills. Vermivora and Oreothlypis (until 2010 considered the same genus)—Golden-winged, Blue-winged, Lucy’s, Colima, Orange-crowned, Tennessee, Virginia’s, and Nashville—have fine, pointed bills.

Bill shape and size have a lot to do with the feeding habits of birds. Mourning, MacGillivray’s, and Kentucky feed on invertebrates on the ground and like to probe and push aside leaves, hence their heavier bills. Vermivora often glean insects from bark and nectar from flowers hence their fine, pointed bills.

Geothlypis (Mourning) Long, heavy bill.

Oreothlypis (Nashville) Fine, pointed bill.

Bill size can be tricky to differentiate on similar warbler species (especially in the large genus Setophaga), and it is often more of a supporting feature. Some species, however, have bills that are noticeably different.

Blackpoll Straight, blunt bill.

Black-and-white Longer, slightly decurved bill for probing bark.

Northern Waterthrush Wide, blunt, long bill.

Swainson’s Pointed, spike-like bill, emphasized by sloped forehead.

Canada Average bill shape for a warbler.

Yellow-breasted Chat Atypical bill for a warbler; heavy with a decurved culmen (upper ridge of bill).

Bill color may vary in some warblers depending on age. In a couple of species, the bill is distinctly bicolored: black on top and pale on bottom.

Wilson’s Bicolored bill (pink lower mandible).

Northern Parula Bicolored bill (orange lower mandible blends with throat).

Bill shape and size contribute to a warbler’s silhouette and general appearance and provide excellent separators to differentiate a warbler from other types of birds such as vireos, flycatchers, and orioles (see the section Non-Warbler Similar Species for more details on these birds).

Red-eyed Vireo Large, hooked bill, common to many vireos.