Digital Signal Processing: Instant Access

Digital Signal Processing

Instant Access

James D. Broesch

Copyright

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Brief Table of Contents

Copyright

Brief Table of Contents

Table of Contents

List of Figures

List of Tables

Chapter 1. Why DSP?

Chapter 2. The Analog-Digital Interface

Chapter 3. DSP System General Model

Chapter 4. The Math of DSP

Chapter 5. Transforms

Chapter 6. Digital Filters

Chapter 7. Applications of DSP

Chapter 8. Digital Signal Processors

 Glossary

 Bibliography

Table of Contents

Copyright

Brief Table of Contents

Table of Contents

List of Figures

List of Tables

Chapter 1. Why DSP?

The Need for DSP

Advantages of DSP

Learning Digital Signal Processing Techniques

Instant Summary

Chapter 2. The Analog-Digital Interface

Sampling and Reconstruction

Quantization

Encoding and Modulation

Technology Trade-offs

Number Representation

Digital-to-Analog Conversion

Types of DACs

Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Types of ADCs

Successive Approximation ADCs

Instant Summary

Chapter 3. DSP System General Model

The Big Picture

Input

Signal-conditioning Circuit

Anti-aliasing Filter

Analog-to-Digital Converter

Processor

Program Store, Data Store

Data Transmission

Display and User Input

Digital-to-Analog Converter

Output Smoothing Filter

Output Amplifier

Output Transducer

Signal Acquisition

More on Sampling Theory

Sampling Resolution

Instant Summary

Chapter 4. The Math of DSP

Functions

Limits

Integration

Oscillatory Motion

Complex Numbers

Example Applications

Filters

Example 1

Example 2

Causality

Convolution

The Fourier Series

The Nyquist Theorem Completed

Orthogonality

Continuous Functions vs. Discrete Sequences

Orthogonality Continued

Quadrature

Instant Summary

Chapter 5. Transforms

Background

The z-transform and DFT

Application of The DFT

The Fourier Transform

Properties of The Fourier Transform

The Laplace Transform

Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

Instant Summary

Chapter 6. Digital Filters

Fir Filters

What Is an FIR Filter?

Stability of FIR Filters

Cost of Implementation

FIR Filter Design Methodology

FIR Design Example

The IIR

Instant Summary

Chapter 7. Applications of DSP

Measurements and Analysis

Telecommunications

Audio and Television

Household Appliances and Toys

Automotive

Nonlinear Applications

Median Filter

Artificial Neural Networks

Fuzzy Logic

Instant Summary

Chapter 8. Digital Signal Processors

System Considerations

Applications and Requirements

Hardware Implementation

Digital Signal Processors versus Microprocessors

Conventional Microprocessors

Digital Signal Processors

The future

Instant Summary

 Glossary

 Bibliography

References

List of Figures

FIGURE 1.1. Analog and digital systems

Figure 2.1. Sampling viewed as a multiplication process

Figure 2.2. Example, a byte (96H) encoded (weights in parenthesis) using PCM in parallel mode (parallel bus, 8 bits, eight wires) and in serial mode as an 8-bit pulse train (over one wire)

Figure 2.3. Different modulation schemes for serial mode data communication, PAM, PPM, PNM, PWM and PDM

Figure 2.4. A generic multiplying DAC using current sources controlled by the bits in the digital input code

Figure 2.5. An example integrating (counting) DAC. (In a real world implementation, additional control and synchronization circuits are needed.)

Figure 2.6. An example 2-bit flash ADC

Figure 2.7. An example SAR ADC (simplified block diagram)

Figure 2.8. A simplified integrating ADC

Figure 2.9. A simplified (a) delta modulator and (b) demodulator

Figure 2.10. A simplified, oversampled bitstream sigma–delta ADC

Figure 3.1. The general model for a DSP system

Figure 3.2. Aliasing

Figure 4.1. Geometric interpretation of integration

Figure 4.2. Polar and rectangular coordinates

Figure 4.3. Ideal LC circuit showing voltage and current relationships

Figure 4.4. Sample points on a sine wave

Figure 4.5. C listing for generating a sine wave

Figure 4.6. DAC output for a sine wave

Figure 4.7. Two cycles of a sine wave

Figure 4.8. The basic low-pass filter

Figure 4.9. A noise pop on a sine wave

Figure 4.10. Effects of a moving average filter

Figure 4.11. Frequency response of a simple filter

Figure 4.12. Effects of a difference filter

Figure 4.13. Creating a square wave from a series of sine waves

Figure 4.14. The average area under a sine wave is zero

Figure 4.15. The average of the square of a sine wave is greater than zero

Figure 4.16. Orthogonality: imaginary part in phase

Figure 4.17. Orthogonality: real part in phase

Figure 4.18. Orthogonality: quadrature

Figure 5.1. Spectrum analysis example

Figure 5.2. Transform of a square wave

Figure 5.3. The z-plane

Figure 5.4. Composite waveform

Figure 5.5. Spectrum for the signal in Figure 5.4

Figure 5.6. Damped LRC circuit

Figure 6.1. Three standard filters

Figure 6.2. Standard architecture for an FIR filter

Figure 6.3. Filter design process for an FIR filter

Figure 6.4. Block diagram for low-pass filter example

Figure 6.5. Sample waveform for the low-pass filter example

Figure 6.6. Resulting spectrum for the sample signal

Figure 6.7. Desired filter shape

Figure 6.8. Pole/zero plot for the low-pass filter example

Figure 6.9. Electronic worksheet for designing the low-pass filter

Figure 6.10. Table of the computations used in Figure 6.9

Figure 7.1. Median filtering of a three-valued signal by threshold decomposition, M=3

Figure 7.2. Example of a simple fuzzy logic system

Figure 8.1. Stream processing and block processing

Figure 8.2. von Neumann architecture, program code and data share memory

Figure 8.3. Harvard architecture, separate buses and memories. I/O, data and instructions can be accessed simultaneously

List of Tables

Table 2.1. Some fixed-point binary number formats

Table 2.2. Decimation filter example

Table 3.1. Binary mapping

Table 4.1. Most frequently used integrals (where c and a are constants and u and v are functions of x)

Table 4.2. Result of applying averaging routine to signal in Figure 4.9

Table 4.3. Frequency response

Table 4.4. Results of applying Eq. 4.40 to data in Figure 4.9

Table 4.5. Results of convolution example

Table 5.1. Signal generation

Table 5.2. DFT with frequency = 0

Table 5.3. Caption not provide

Table 5.4. Caption not provide

Table 5.5. Some properties of the Fourier transform

Chapter 1. Why DSP?

DSP Definitions

The acronym DSP is used for two terms, digital signal processing and digital signal processor, both of which are covered in this book. Digital signal processing is performing signal processing using digital techniques with the aid of digital hardware and/or some kind of computing device. Signal processing can of course be analog as well, but, for a variety of reasons, we may prefer to handle the processing digitally. A digital computer or processor that is designed especially for signal processing applications is called a digital signal processor.

The Need for DSP

To understand the relative merits of analog and digital processing, it is convenient to compare the two techniques in a common application. Figure 1.1 shows two approaches to recording sounds such as music or speech. Figure 1.1a is the analog approach. It works like this:

Sound waves impact the microphone, where they are converted to electrical impulses.

These electrical signals are amplified, then converted to magnetic fields by the recording head.

As the magnetic tape moves under the head, the intensity of the magnetic fields is stored on the tape.

FIGURE 1.1. Analog and digital systems

The playback process is just the inverse of the recording process:

As the magnetic tape moves under the playback head, the magnetic field on the tape is converted to an electrical signal.

The signal is then amplified and sent to the speaker. The speaker converts the amplified signal back to sound waves.

The advantage of the analog process is twofold: first, it is conceptually quite simple. Second, by definition, an analog signal can take on virtually an infinite number of values within the signal's dynamic range. Unfortunately, this analog process is inherently unstable. The amplifiers are subject to gain variation over temperature, humidity, and time. The magnetic tape stretches and shrinks, thus distorting the recorded signal. The magnetic fields themselves will, over time, lose some of their strength. Variations in the speed of the motor driving the tape cause additional distortion. All of these factors combine to ensure that the output signal will be considerably lower in quality than the input signal Each time the signal is passed on to another analog process, these adverse effects are multiplied. It is rare for an analog system to be able to make more than two or three generations of copies.

Now let's look at the digital process as shown in Figure 1.1b:

As in the analog case, the sound waves impact the microphone and are converted to electrical signals. These electrical signals are then amplified to a usable level.

The electrical signals are measured or, in other words, they are converted to numbers.

These numbers can now be stored or manipulated by a computer just as any other numbers are.

To play back the signal, the numbers are simply converted back to electrical signals. As in the analog case, these signals are then used to drive a speaker.

There are two distinct disadvantages to the digital process: first, it is far more complicated than the analog process; second, computers can only handle numbers of finite resolution. Thus, the (potentially) infinite resolution of the analog signal is lost.

Insider Info

The first major contribution in the area of digital filter synthesis was made by Kaiser at Bell Laboratories. His work showed how to design useful filters using the bilinear transform. Further, in about 1965 the famous paper by Cooley and Turkey was published. In this paper, FFT (fast Fourier transform), an efficient and fast way of performing the DFT (discrete Fourier transform) was demonstrated.

Advantages of DSP

Obviously, there must be some compensating benefits of the digital process, and indeed there are. First, once converted to numbers, the signal is unconditionally stable. Using techniques such as error detection and correction, it is possible to store, transmit, and reproduce numbers with no corruption. The twentieth generation of recording is therefore just as accurate as the first generation.

Insider Info

The problems with analog signal reproduction have some interesting implications. Future generations will never really know what the Beatles sounded like, for example. The commercial analog technology of the 1960s was simply not able to accurately record and reproduce the signals. Several generations of analog signals were needed to reproduce the sound: First, a master tape would be recorded, and then mixed and edited; from this, a metal master record would be produced, from which would come a plastic impression. Each step of the process was a new generation of recording, and each generation acted on the signal like a filter, reducing the frequency content and skewing the phase. As with the paintings in the Sistine Chapel, the true colors and brilliance of the original art is lost to history. Things are different for today s musicians. A thousand years from now historians will be able to accurately play back the digitally mastered CDs of today. The discs themselves may well deteriorate, but before they do, the digital numbers on them can be copied with perfect accuracy. Signals stored digitally are really just large arrays of numbers. As such, they are immune to the physical limitations of analog signals.

There are other significant advantages to processing signals digitally. Geophysicists were one of the first groups to apply the techniques of signal processing. The seismic signals of interest to them are often of very low frequency, from 0.01 Hz to 10 Hz. It is difficult to build analog filters that work at these low frequencies. Component values must be so large that physically implementing the filter may well be impossible. Once the signals have been converted to digital numbers, however, it is a straightforward process to program a computer to perform the filtering.

Other advantages to digital signals abound. For example, DSP can allow large bandwidth signals to be sent over narrow bandwidth channels. A 20-kHz signal can be digitized and then sent over a 5-kHz channel. The signal may take four times as long to get through the narrower bandwidth channel, but when it comes out the other side it can be reconstructed to its full 20-kHz bandwidth.

In the same way, communications security can be greatly improved through DSP. Since the signal is sent as numbers, it can be easily encrypted. When received, the numbers are decrypted and then reproduced as the original signal. Modern secure telephone DSP systems allow this processing to be done with no detectable effect on the conversation.

Technology Trade-offs

DSP has several major advantages over analog signal processing techniques, including:

Essentially perfect reproducibility

Guaranteed accuracy (no individual tuning and pruning needed)

Well-suited for volume production

Learning Digital Signal Processing Techniques

The most important first step of studying any subject is to grasp the overall picture and to understand the basics before diving into the depths. With that in mind, the goal of this book is to provide a broad introduction and overview of DSP techniques and applications. The authors seek to bring an intuitive understanding of the concepts and systems involved in the field of DSP engineering.

Only a few years ago, DSP techniques were considered advanced and esoteric subjects, their use limited to research labs or advanced applications such as radar identification. Today, the technology has found its way into virtually every segment of electronics. Computer graphics, mobile entertainment and communication devices, and automobiles are just a few of the common examples.

The rapid acceptance and commercialization of this technology has presented the modern design engineer with a serious challenge: either gain a working knowledge of these techniques or risk obsolescence. Traditionally, engineers have had two options for acquiring new skills: go back to school, or turn to vendors’ technical