The Principles and Practice of Horse-Shoeing - A Text Book on Horse-Shoeing

PART I.

ANATOMY.

Remember you must apply your principles to your practice. Practice without principles on which to work is like trying to pass an examination without being prepared.

THE BONES.

The skeleton of the horse must first be noticed, as it will be necessary for the Farrier to have a general knowledge of the bones below the knee and hock, these bones and their attachments being liable to suffer from various conditions that disturb the gait and the balance of the horse’s foot, whether caused by shoeing or otherwise.

VARIETIES OF BONES. In bones, for instance, there are long bones and short bones; some that are flat, and others that are round, and it is therefore necessary for the student to know a little of osteology. Taking for instance long bones: the Radius or bone of the arm (from elbow to knee), the large Metacarpal (from knee to fetlock) are good examples. These bones CARRY WEIGHT, forming an upright column when the horse is standing still.

Taking the bones that are the reverse of long—the short bones—these are the bones of the knee and hock, and those below the fetlock are good examples. Why is it necessary that short bones should enter into the limb at all? It is because by means of these an opening and shutting movement (bending) is obtained. A very good example of the functions of short bones is found in the fingers of the hand of a human being.

Flat bones require notice because their use is entirely different from the bones above mentioned: for instance, the bones of a skull are flat, thus the brain is protected by a plate of bone. Again, the shoulder blade (scapula), together with the flat rib bones, protect the heart, lungs and liver from external violence, thus these vital organs are protected by flat bones.

COMPOSITION OF BONE. What is bone? A yellowish-white, hard and insensitive substance containing 50% of water, and made up of two parts. The outer side is composed of dense compact tissue, while the interior part of the bone is cancellated or porous. Bone is made up of approximately two parts (67%) of mineral matter, mainly calcium phosphate or lime, and about one part (33%) of animal matter, in other words, gelatine. Should we want to test the accuracy of these statements we must make severe tests. Take two bones of equal weight, place one in a bath of strong hydrochloric acid, and expose the other to the heat of a bright red fire. It will be found after this treatment that the bone that has been burnt, while yet retaining its shape, has lost one-third of its original weight, while after immersing the other bone in the acid for several days the lime will have become absorbed, leaving a gelatinous substance behind, about one-third of its original weight.

STRUCTURE OF BONE. The long bones of a horse are tubular in formation, therefore very strong. Running down the centre of each we find a cavity, the Medullary Canal. This cavity is lined by a very fine vascular membrane called the Endosteum. It is in the Medullary Canal that bone marrow is found. The long bones the farrier must notice are, the Large Metacarpal of the fore limb, and the Large Metatarsal of the hind limb. It will be well at this juncture to point out to the student that other names are occasionally given to these bones, and on reading works on horse-shoeing, some authors refer to them as the cannon, shank or shin bones. Should one care to obtain a cannon bone and cut it in two transversely it will be found to be thickest in compact tissue on its inner side, and it is suggested the inner side carries more weight, being more under the centre of gravity. Taking all bones generally, we should say the outer side is composed of dense compact tissue, inside this hard outer ring we see cancellated tissue, then the Canal, lined by the endosteum and filled with marrow. One now notices that all bones contain a large number of various sized holes in their outer surfaces all passing inward. The smaller ones are for the purpose of carrying blood vessels for nutritive purposes, while large holes, called foraminæ, carry blood vessels for circulatory purposes. We also see various rough surfaces on some of the bones; these are for the attachment or insertion of ligaments.

One must now notice the difference in the shape of a Large Metacarpal and a Large Metatarsal. These can be distinguished by the following characteristics: the Large Metacarpal of the fore leg is always shorter than the corresponding bone of the hind leg, and whereas the Large Metacarpal is flattish in shape, the Metatarsal is round.

BONES CONCERNED IN SHOEING. The bones of the fore leg that concern the student are: the Large Metacarpal, sometimes called the shank, shin, or cannon bone; the two Small Metacarpals or Splint bones; the Os Suffraginis or Long Pastern; the two Sessamoid bones; the Os Coronæ or Small Pastern; the Os Navicularis or Navicular bone; the Os Pedis, Pedal or Coffin bone. The bones of the hind leg are similarly named to the fore leg, with the exception of the cannon bone, which is called the Large Metatarsal, and which is supported by the two Small Metatarsals. I now propose to take the bones in the order I have given them.

THE LARGE METACARPAL is the long bone beginning immediately under the small bones of the knee. The head of this bone, supported as it is by the two Small Metacarpals, forms a convenient table for the two layers of small bones which enter into the formation of the knee joint: its lower end shows a working or articular surface covered with articulatory cartilage, and we notice this surface has three distinct prominences and two depressions. The middle prominence is called the median ridge, and is by far the most pronounced, while the lateral prominences or condyles on either side are flatter. Shallow depressions exist between these prominences. We see on either side (the internal and external aspects) of the lower end of these bones roughened surfaces for the attachment of ligaments.

ILLUSTRATION OF LARGE METACARPAL WITH SPLINT BONES.

From Dollar’s Horse Shoeing and the Horse’s Foot.—David Douglas.

THE SMALL METACARPALS OR SPLINT BONES are found at the posterior part of the larger Metacarpal, so arranged that a pronounced groove is formed in which lies a most important ligament. (This will be dealt with under its proper heading.)

The lower end of the Large Metacarpal articulates, or works, with the Os Suffraginis or Large Pastern and the two Sessamoids: these bones form the fetlock joint. The large working surface formed conjointly by the Sessamoids and Os Suffraginis allows this bone to extend in a forward and downward direction, and forms, with the Large Metacarpal, an angle of about 135 degrees.

THE SUFFRAGINIS BONE is about one-third the length of the Metacarpal, and its largest end (head) shows a median depression and two lateral depressions. These are called the Glenoid cavities and receive the condyles and median ridge situated on the lower end of the Metacarpal. The Suffraginis at its lower end shows two prominences (condyles), with a depression between them; on either side roughened surfaces exist again for the better attachment of ligaments. The anterior face of the bone is smooth, and the sides rounded, the posterior face has a well-marked, roughened triangle for the attachment of ligaments.

From Dollar’s Horse Shoeing and the Horse’s Foot.—David Douglas.

THE SESSAMOID BONES are somewhat pyramidal in shape; they are attached to the Os Suffraginis by ligamentous tissue and thus enlarge the articular surface of this bone.

THE OS CORONÆ, or Short Pastern, is placed between the Long Pastern and the Pedal bone. It is cube shaped, while its head shows two Glenoid depressions; these receive the condyles on the lower end of the Large Pastern: its lower end possesses two condyles and articulates with the Pedal and Navicular bone. The Coronary bone is about one-half the size of the Os Suffraginis, and when in position, owing to the size of the working surface of its head, it stands out prominently behind, showing a distinct ridge. This forms a gliding surface for the Flexor Perforans tendon to pass over while it is to this ridge the Flexor Perforatus tendon is attached.

From Dollar’s Horse Shoeing and the Horse’s Foot.—David Douglas.

THE PEDAL BONE, or Third Phalanx, as it is sometimes called is the lower bone of the limb; in shape it somewhat resembles the hoof, and it can be truly described as crescent-shaped. It has three surfaces, an articulatory surface, a solar surface and an outside or anterior surface. The articulatory surface is extended by having the Navicular bone attached to it; it therefore presents a large working surface for contact with the Coronary bone. The Navicular and Pedal bones when united on their anterior surface, show two Glenoid cavities. The solar surface of the Pedal bone is domed or arch-shaped when standing on a level surface, and it shows a ridge or crest immediately under this arch at its highest part. The two large holes (plantar foraminæ) through which the plantar arteries pass can also be seen, while the ridge, owing to its half-moon shape, is called the SEMI-LUNAR CREST. One will notice a groove running from the PLANTAR FORAMIN Æ outwards towards the wings; this is the PLANTAR GROOVE. The student should here observe that it is to the semi-lunar crest the Flexor Pedis Perforans tendon is attached.

DIVISIONS OF PEDAL BONE. Looking at the Pedal bone as it stands on its lower border (solar surface), we notice it is continued backward, terminating in THE WINGS. In a normal bone the wings show a distinct notch in the end of each (THE PRE-PLANTAR NOTCH), while continuous to the notch a groove runs, dividing the wing (THE PRE-PLANTAR GROOVE). The name given to the portion of the wing of the Pedal bone below the Pre-Plantar Groove and Notch is THE RETROSSAL PROCESS. The portion of the wing above the groove is called the BASILAR PROCESS. The Pre-Plantar Notch can be seen only in a normal bone, as in old horses frequently an exostosis of bone has obliterated the notch, leaving a hole (foraminæ) only.

From Dollar’s Horse Shoeing and the Horse’s Foot.—David Douglas.

It is to the BASILAR PROCESSES THAT THE LATERAL CARTILAGES ARE ATTACHED. These will be described, more fully later.

Standing in front of the bone while it is still on the table, one notices that it rises to a point on the centre of its outer or anterior surface. This is the PYRAMIDAL PROCESS, or APEX, and it is to this part of the Pedal bone that the Extensor Pedis tendon is attached.

PECULIARITIES OF PEDAL BONE. The pedal bone of the horse differs from the other bones we have described by the fact that it is very light. It is also very porous, being pierced by innumerable small holes, so much so that is has been likened to a piece of pumice-stone. These holes are for the insertion of small blood-vessels used for conveying blood to the various parts of the foot, and are necessary for the purposes of circulation. The Pedal bone is necessarily HARD to render it capable of carrying the very considerable weight that is continually passing over it. One has only to think of a horse starting a very heavy load; on these occasions the hind limbs are used as levers and an enormous amount of pressure is exerted on the bones of the hind limbs, and we can thus see the necessity for bones that are very strong. Their strength in carrying weight is gained by their shape on the ground surface, which is really that of an arch (arch-shaped), and yet while the Pedal bone is hard and strong, it is light in weight, and we can only assume the reason for the Pedal bone being exceptionally light is that under ordinary circumstances, less energy is required to move it. Everyone knows that it requires considerable muscular power to hold out a stick at arm’s length with a weight on its end, and the heavier the weight, the quicker one’s muscles become tired.

THE NAVICULAR BONE is a small, transversely elongated bone placed between the wings of the Os Pedis, with which it is in contact, adding to the articular or working surface of the Pedal Joint. On its under surface it is very smooth, and it is over this surface that the Flexor Perforans Tendon glides. The student should remember that the Os Suffraginis, Coronary and Pedal bones form a straight line, which is set off from the Large Metacarpal at an angle of about 135 degrees, and this should be maintained by a proper preparation of the foot, for the reason that if the toe of the foot becomes long and the heels low (this condition is usually associated with a long toe), the angle becomes acute; while on the other hand, if the heels become overgrown and the toes short or stumpy, then the pastern becomes too upright.

From Dollar’s Horse Shoeing and the Horse’s Foot.—David Douglas.

THE ARTICULATIONS OF THE FOOT.

DEFINITION OF A JOINT. The anatomical definition of a joint is, that it is two or more bones working together. In the Fetlock Joint we have four: the lower end of the Large Metacarpal articulating with the head of the Os Suffraginis and the two Sessamoid bones. We have already noticed that the lower end of the Large Metacarpal has a median ridge and two lateral condyles; this aspect of the bone is sometimes spoken of as a convex surface, while the Glenoid cavities formed in the head of the Os Suffraginis, which have been extended by the addition of the Sessamoids, are sometimes described as a concave surface. A joint where a convex surface glides on or works with a concave surface is called a Ginglymoid, or hinge-like joint. The Fetlock Joint is of this type, but it differs in its formation from the Pastern and Pedal Joints, owing to its having a median ridge. The median ridge gives ample security against any movement other than of Flexion and Extension; The restricted movements of the Fetlock Joint should be compared with the Pastern and Pedal Joints. Its movements can be compared to a door, the hinges of which allow it to be opened and closed, but no side movement.

THIS ILLUSTRATION SHOWS THE BONES IN POSITION AND PASTERN, FETLOCK AND PEDAL JOINTS.

From Dollar’s Horse Shoeing and the Horse’s Foot.—David Douglas.

POSTERIOR VIEW OF THE FETLOCK JOINT, PASTERN, PEDAL AND NAVICULAR JOINTS.

From Dollar’s Horse Shoeing and the Horse’s Foot.—David Douglas.

THE FETLOCK JOINT IS A TRUE OR PERFECT HINGE JOINT, allowing movement in two directions only. The Pastern and Pedal Joints are ginglymoid or hinge-like joints, and while allowing of free extension and flexion, they are capable of side movements and are termed imperfect hinge joints, having no median ridge in their formation.

THE JOINTS.

Having now noticed the difference in joints, it would be well to see how Nature has provided for movement between bones without friction. Over the surface where one bone is opposed to another, we find a thin sheet of gristle, bluish-white in colour, and on removal quite flexible, containing neither nerve tissue nor bloodvessels, and perfectly smooth; thus we have two smooth surfaces gliding one on the other, without the least friction, because there is a system of lubrication set up that assures perfect working. (See Capsular Ligament.)

ARTICULATORY CARTILAGE. The gristle covering the working surface of the joints is called Articulatory Cartilage. Not only does it ensure perfectly smooth working, it also acts as a buffer between bones and helps to absorb concussion: this, however, should not occur. It must be remembered in horse-shoeing that each part is called upon to carry out certain functions and there is no necessity for concussion to be transferred to the joints at all, provided the horse is properly shod. If, however, owing to indifferent shoeing, a large amount of concussion is transferred to the joints, the horse will rapidly show the signs of wear; the fore legs become shaken, the horse going over at the knees, while the hind limbs also show the signs of wear and tear by the fetlock joints becoming over-shot. (Shot jointed.)

THE PERIOSTEUM. This name is given to a very thin but strong membrane that covers all bones except where they are covered with cartilage. It is sometimes spoken of as the bone skin. It is composed of two layers, the outer layer is of fibrous tissue, while the inner layer is of fine connective tissue. The Periosteum varies in thickness according to the position of the bone, being strongest where the bone is most exposed to injury, and thinnest where it is well covered with muscular tissue.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PERIOSTEUM. It is from the blood vessels which are distributed in this membrane that the bones are to a great extent supplied with nourishment, minute branches from the periosteal vessels entering the small foraminæ; the periosteum is also important because of the part it takes in the formation of bone.

THE LIGAMENTS. We must now consider how bones are held together, how joints are lubricated, and the general function of ligaments, and for this purpose it will be necessary to divide ligaments into three groups: the Capsular ligament, the Cordlike ligaments, sometimes spoken of as funicular ligaments, and the Band-like or annular ligaments.

THE CAPSULAR LIGAMENT surrounds all the working parts of a joint like a sheath or capsule, and is the continuation of the periosteum from one bone to another. It is composed of two layers, the outer one very fibrous and strong, while the inner lining of the Capsular Ligament is composed of soft, delicate tissue. This lining is the interior of the outer fibrous covering and is intimately connected with it. It is from this inner lining that synovia or joint oil is secreted. This fluid is very much like the albumen of egg, being slightly sticky and yellow-white in colour.

The function of the Capsular Ligament is to secrete synovia to lubricate the working surface of the joint, thus preventing friction.

FUNICULAR OR CORD-LIKE LIGAMENTS. These consist of white, glistening, fibrous material, forming cords of immense strength: they are the bond of union between bone and bone. They vary considerably in length and thickness according to their situation; so strong are they that it is very rarely indeed they are ruptured (the bones usually fracturing first); they are inserted into the roughened parts of the bones.

THE ANNULAR LIGAMENTS. These are flat bands of the same material. Their function is to bind the tendons down where they pass over joints: for instance, the knee and hock.

THE LIGAMENTS OF THE FETLOCK JOINTS. The first ligament we must take notice of is the Capsular Ligament; as this type of ligament has already been mentioned no further description is needed. Joining the Large Metacarpal to the Os Suffraginis we have on either side a lateral ligament (THE INNER AND OUTER LIGAMENTS). These are inserted into the roughened pits found on either side of the lower end of the Large Metacarpal and thence on to a roughened position on the sides of the Suffraginis.

The two Sessamoid bones are joined together by means of the INTER-SESSAMOIDEAN LIGAMENT. While this is composed of the usual ligamentous fibrous material it has also an admixture of white fibro