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    Vector Methods Applied to Differential Geometry, Mechanics, and Potential Theory
    Vector Methods Applied to Differential Geometry, Mechanics, and Potential Theory
    Vector Methods Applied to Differential Geometry, Mechanics, and Potential Theory
    Ebook235 pages1 hour

    Vector Methods Applied to Differential Geometry, Mechanics, and Potential Theory

    By D. E. Rutherford

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    About this ebook

    Designed to familiarize undergraduates with the methods of vector algebra and vector calculus, this text offers both a clear view of the abstract theory as well as a concise survey of the theory's applications to various branches of pure and applied mathematics. A chapter on differential geometry introduces readers to the study of this subject by the methods of vector algebra. The next section explores the many aspects of the theory of mechanics adaptable to the use of vectors, and a full discussion of the vector operator "nabla" proceeds to a treatment of potential theory and Laplace's equation. This includes applications to the theories of gravitation, hydrodynamics, and electricity. A brief chapter on four-dimensional vectors concludes the text.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherDover Publications
    Release dateApr 27, 2012
    ISBN9780486154534
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      Vector Methods Applied to Differential Geometry, Mechanics, and Potential Theory - D. E. Rutherford

      pages

      CHAPTER I

      VECTOR ALGEBRA

      § 1. WE are all familiar with the fact that if B is two miles from A and if C is two miles from B, then C is not necessarily four miles from A. Only in very special circumstances are distances compounded according to the ordinary arithmetical law of addition. Actually there are many other entities which behave in this way as distances rather than as ordinary numbers; the study of such entities leads to the calculus of vectors.

      A scalar is a quantity which has magnitude but which is not related to any definite direction in space. A scalar is completely specified by a number. A vector is an entity which obeys the same law of addition as a distance does. It has a magnitude and is also related to a definite direction in space. It follows that any vector may be represented by a straight line with an arrow head whose direction is that of the vector and whose length represents the magnitude of the vector according to a convenient scale. We shall denote vectors by Clarendon type, e.g., r. German textbooks usually use Gothic type to denote vectors. A vector of zero magnitude can have no direction associated with it. Such a vector is called the zero vector and is denoted by 0. The magnitude of a vector is called its length. It is frequently convenient to denote the length of a vector r by r. A similar convention is used when vectors are denoted by other letters.

      Two vectors are added in the same way as two distances, so we define the addition of vectors by the parallelogram law. If a is represented by the directed line and b is represented by , then a+b is defined as the vector represented by where OACB is the completed parallelogram (. If a+b=0, i.e. if O and C .

      FIG. 1

      It is evident from definition that the commutative law

      a + b = b + a,

      and the associative law

      a + (b+c) = (a+b) + c = a + b + c,

      both hold for the addition of vectors.

      The vector a+a is naturally called 2a and is a vector in the same direction as a but of twice its length. Similarly ma is a vector in the same direction as a but of length ma. Evidently

      m(na) = n(ma) = nma,

      and

      (m + n) a = ma + na.

      Also from the similar triangles in fig. 2, we see that

      m(a + b) = ma + mb.

      FIG. 2

      If a vector r can be represented as a sum of vectors a + b + ... + d, we say that r can be resolved into components a, b, . . ., d. It is important to realise that any vector can be resolved into three components in any three given directions which are not coplanar. If r is the given vector, we can construct a parallelepiped about r as diagonal, whose edges are parallel to the three given directions. Then r = a + b + c, where a, b, c are the vectors indicated in fig. 3. Further, this resolution is unique, for if

      a1 + b1 + c1 = r = a2 + b2 + c2,

      then

      a1 – a2 = (b2 – b1) + (c2 – c1).

      FIG. 3

      Now b2 – b1 is in one of the given directions and c2 – c1 is in another, so the sum of these two vectors is a vector in the plane of these two directions. This cannot be in the direction of a1 – a2, which is in the third direction unless a1 = a2. Similarly it may be shown that b1 = b2 and c1 = c2. Thus the resolution is unique.

      A similar argument will show that any vector lying in a plane may be uniquely resolved into two components in any two given directions which are parallel to the plane.

      We choose rectangular axes OXYZ. Let i, j, k respectively. Now xi is a vector of length x direction, yj is one of length y direction and zk is one of length z direction, so if P be the point (x, y, z) and r then (fig. 4)

      r = xi + yj + zk.

      Evidently x=r cos α, y=r cos β, z=r cos γ, where α =XÔP, β = YÔP, γ = ZÔP. cos α, cos β, cos γ are called the direction cosines or of any line in the direction

      FIG. 4

      . The direction cosines may be denoted by λ, μ, ν. It is usual to denote the components of a in the three coordinate directions by axi, ayj, azk. Thus

      a = axi + ayj + azk.

      § 2. We define the scalar product ¹ of two vectors a and b as ab cos θ where θ is the angle between the directions of the two vectors. We write

      ... (1)

      We notice that the scalar product of two vectors is not a vector but a scalar, and that scalar multiplication is commutative. If two vectors are perpendicular, their scalar product is zero since cos θ = 0. In particular

      . . . (2)

      If a and b have the same direction, a . b = ab. In particular

      . . (3)

      Since a . b is the length of a multiplied by the projected length of b on a, it follows that

      a . (b + c) = a . b + a . c,

      for the projection of b + c on a is the sum of the projections of b and c on a. Evidently

      m(a . b) = (ma) . b = a . (mb).

      From these results we see that if

      a = axi + ayj + azk, b = bxi + byj + bzk,

      then

      or

      . . . (4)

      Hence

      (5)

      where (λaμaνa) and (λbμbνb) are the direction cosines of a and b respectively, for λa = ax/a, μa = ay/a, νa = az/a, and similarly for λb, μb, νb. a . a denotes the square of the length of a and is sometimes written as a².

      § 3. A rotation may be represented in magnitude and direction by a line whose length is proportional to the angle through which the rotation is made and whose direction is that of the axis of rotation.² We must, however, adopt a convention as to how we represent rotations about the same axis in opposite directions. We adopt a right-handed system of coordinate axes and represent a positive rotation through an angle π/2 from OX to OY . A rotation from OY to OX (fig. 5).

      FIG. 5

      The vector product of two vectors a and b is the vector ab sin θ c, where θ is the angle between the directions of the two vectors and c is a vector of unit length perpendicular to both a and b and in the same direction as the line which represents a rotation from a to b. We denote the vector product ³ of a and b by a × b. It follows from definition that

      ... (6)

      If a and b are parallel, then a × b = 0 since sin θ = 0. In particular a × a =0 and

      (7)

      Also from definition

      (8)

      It may further be shown that

      a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c;

      for, let b′,̒c′ be the projections of b, c on the plane perpendicular to a. Then b′ + c′ is the projection of b + c on this plane. Evidently

      a × b′= a × b, a × c′= a × c, a × (b′+ c′)=a × (b + c).

      But since a is perpendicular to b′ and c′, a × b′ lies in the plane perpendicular to a, is of a times the length of b′ and is perpendicular to b′; also a × c′ is in this plane, is of a times the length of c′ and is perpendicular to c′. It follows that a × b′ + a × c′ lies in this plane, is of a times the length of b′ + c′ and is perpendicular to b′ + c′. In other words

      a × b′+ a × c′ =a × (b′+ c′),

      whence we obtain the required result.

      It follows

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