LSAT Logic Games 2nd Ed.

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LSAT Logic Games

Copyright 2011 by Research & Education Association, Inc.

Prior edition copyright © 2006 by Research & Education Association, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Control Number 2010942725

9780738665566

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Research & Education Association, Inc.

PREFACE: WHY IS THIS SO CONFUSING?

Students and other readers sometimes comment that the problems presented in the analytical reasoning section of the LSAT (A.K.A. the logic games) seem overly confusing and unnecessarily difficult. Sometimes people ask, Why didn’t you just say . . . or Why can’t you say everything the same way?

The answer to those questions and the source of the apparent confusion has to do with understanding the structure of the LSAT Logic Games, and, by extension, an essential element of the LSAT test itself. Remember, the goal of each logic game is to improve the ability to work with the LSAT analytical reasoning section efficiently and effectively.

Consider this example from an actual LSAT test:

Nine different treatments are available for a certain illness: three antibiotics—F, G, and H—three dietary regimens—M, N, and O—and three physical therapies—U, V, and W For each case of the illness, a doctor will prescribe exactly five of the treatments, in accordance with the following conditions:

If two of the antibiotics are prescribed, the remaining antibiotic cannot be prescribed.

There must be exactly one dietary regimen prescribed.

If O is not prescribed, F cannot be prescribed.

If W is prescribed, F cannot be prescribed.

G cannot be prescribed if both N and U are prescribed.

V cannot be prescribed unless both H and M are prescribed.¹

This information sets up a situation, then asks six questions about it. Take a look at the list of conditions. The first two have to do with the number of treatments that might be prescribed from two of the categories. The second of these conditions is quite clear: There is exactly one dietary regimen prescribed.

However, the first condition does not seem nearly so clear. It defines a relationship among the antibiotics: If two of the antibiotics are prescribed, the remaining antibiotic cannot be prescribed. Spend a little time analyzing that statement and you will see that it is much simpler than it appears, and means: the doctor does not prescribe all three antibiotics. The statement leaves the possibility that the doctor prescribes one or two of the antibiotics, but not all three. Understanding the situation requires the ability to make that analysis.

The remaining four conditions establish relationships among some of the treatments that the doctor’s prescribing follows. But it takes a bit of time to sort out exactly what these conditions are, since they are expressed differently from one another. The second condition is the most clear and straightforward of the four. It says that, If W is included, then F is not.

That seems pretty plain, so let’s try to make the other three conditions clear in the same way. The first of the three conditions includes two negatives, so you can clarify it by removing those negatives, revealing that it means exactly this: If F is included then O is also included. Now follow through this form with another condition, which involves multiple items and seems to reverse the order of the statement. It turns out to be: If both N and U are included, then G is also included. The relationship in the last condition is in a different format and uses the word unless. But you can make it clearer when you put it in the same form as the other three conditions, which makes it into two statements: If V is included, then H is included, and If V is included, then M is included. This analysis takes these seemingly confusing conditions and makes a list that is easier to apply:

If F is prescribed then O is also prescribed.

If W is prescribed, then F is not prescribed.

If both N and U are prescribed, then G is not prescribed.

If V is prescribed, then H is prescribed.

If V is prescribed, then M is prescribed.

Applying all of these conditions at the same time will be a challenge, but it helps to understand exactly what they mean.

In this example, we stated all the conditions in the form originally used by the second condition (a positive), but they could also be stated in the form of the first condition and mean exactly the same thing. Stated that way, they become negative:

If O is not prescribed then F is not prescribed.

If F is prescribed then W is not prescribed.

If G is prescribed then N is not prescribed or U is not prescribed.

If H is not prescribed then V is not prescribed.

If M is not prescribed then V is not prescribed.

This way of stating the conditions seems more cumbersome, but it means exactly the same thing. We could also state it several other ways. Suppose we put all the conditions in the form using unless. Then they become:

O is prescribed unless F is not prescribed.

W is not prescribed unless F is not prescribed.

Unless G is not prescribed it cannot be that both N and U are prescribed.

V cannot be prescribed unless both H and M are prescribed.

To most people, this would be the most confusing of the three formats, but the statements mean exactly the same thing as in the other two examples.

In this LSAT problem, a mix of formats is used, which creates opportunity for error in interpretation. Those errors have to be avoided to be able to understand the situation and to demonstrate that the consequences of the conditions include things like O could be prescribed without F or N and G could both be prescribed, deductions that are likely to crop up in the questions.

Now if we were writing, say, a technical manual about how to hook up a printer to your computer or, perhaps, an academic paper about the possibilities for the control of Congress in the coming election, two things would guide our choice of how to make the statements: we would want to make it easiest for the reader to understand what we mean, and we would want to be consistent in the form we use from statement to statement. That is because in those settings the goals would be clarity and accuracy. But in the LSAT students are not being tested about their own clarity, but about their ability to understand the meaning of complex statements and to apply that meaning in various circumstances. For that reason the LSAT does not necessarily seek the clearest way of making a statement, and it certainly does not follow the same format for every similar condition. The goal is to understand the test-taker’s ability to interpret various ways of making the statements correctly, and so that is what is tested. To be sure, in any analytical reasoning section the statements are all exact in that there is no ambiguity and that each says what it means to say. But,

"there are plenty of ways to say accurately and exactly what one means to say, and the LSAT makes generous use of those various ways ."

In this particular analytical reasoning example, the conditions are stated in various forms that might leave the test-taker, and especially a more casual reader, asking: "Why don’t you just say what you mean? The answer is: Because I want to discover your level of ability to understand the complexities of language and logical structure."

And that is exactly what this book is designed to help you practice: correctly interpreting complex statements to understand what they mean and what they don’t mean, so you can combine them with other such statements to discover their implications, and then answer questions.

In an analytical reasoning situation, one misinterpretation of one condition is likely to lead to several incorrect answers. In most cases, there are several conditions in any situation, and they are often stated in a variety of ways.

In the example, the conditions may seem confusing. But that is not because they are confused about what they mean, and not because their meaning is ambiguous. They seem confusing because of the variety of ways to say the same exact thing. As you study for the LSAT you will benefit from learning the meaning of these various linguistic forms.

Someone who wants to excel on analytical reasoning problems must master these formats in order to avoid making mistakes and to succeed in working the problems efficiently and effectively.

Serious Games and the Logic of the LSAT

Passionate.

Disciplined.

Worldly-wise.

If you’re getting ready to pursue a law degree, I’m reasonably sure I just described you.

But, of course, it doesn’t end there. Law schools are seeking candidates with strong analytical and problem-solving skills, and with particular strength in logical reasoning. So it comes as no surprise that logical reasoning lies at the heart of the LSAT, the test required for admission to law schools across the United States and Canada.

Well-rounded you may be, but logical reasoning does not necessarily come naturally. In fact, there’s no substitute for exposure to in-depth logic games to get you in shape for test day—and for law school generally.

The Association of American Law Schools, in describing the type of education appropriate for pre-law students, recommends preparation that helps candidates develop creative power in thinking.

The 100 challenging logic games in this book have been carefully honed by some of the best academic thinkers on this subject in North America to help you sharpen your creative power and thereby master the LSAT The logic games contained herein are presented in a systematic progression to allow you to build your approach, and thus your confidence, from every facet.

Whatever other prep you’re doing for the LSAT (or even tests like the GMAT!), you’ll find REA’s LSAT Logic Games to be an invaluable resource.

Larry B. Kling

Chief Editor

Meet the Team Behind REA’s LSAT Logic Games

The best minds to help you get the best LSAT scores

In this book, you’ll find our commitment to excellence, an enthusiasm for the subject matter, and an unrivaled ability to help you master the LSAT REA’s dedication to excellence and our passion for education make this book the very best source for preparing for the LSAT Analytical Reasoning section.

Robert Webking is Professor of Political Science at the University of Texas at El Paso, where he has taught since 1978. He is co-founder of UTEP’s Law School Preparation Institute and in that role, has, since 1998, taught many students in a very intensive and thorough way how to work with the LSAT.

Jerry McLain is a graduate of the University of Texas at El Paso and of UTEP’s Law School Preparation Institute. He is a graduate of Stanford Law School.

Clayton Holland is a graduate of the University of Texas at El Paso and of UTEP’s Law School Preparation Institute. He is a student at the University of Virginia School of Law

Daniel Avelar is a graduate of the University of Texas at El Paso and of UTEP’s Law School Preparation Institute. He is a graduate of Texas Tech School of Law.

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

PREFACE: WHY IS THIS SO CONFUSING?

Serious Games and the Logic of the LSAT

Meet the Team Behind REA’s LSAT Logic Games - The best minds to help you get the best LSAT scores

ABOUT RESEARCH & EDUCATION ASSOCIATION

STAFF ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Part I - An Approach to Analytical Reasoning Problems

Introduction

Five-Step Procedure

Basic Types

How to Use This Book

Part II - Games

Game 1

Game 2

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Part III - Setups

Setup Game 1

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Part IV - Question Analysis and Answers

Answers Game 1

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Part V - Summary Answers

ABOUT RESEARCH & EDUCATION ASSOCIATION

Founded in 1959, Research & Education Association is dedicated to publishing the finest and most effective educational materials—including software, study guides, and test preps—for students in middle school, high school, college, graduate school, and beyond.

REA’s Test Preparation series includes books and software for all academic levels in almost all disciplines. REA publishes test preps for students who have not yet entered high school, as well as high school students preparing to enter college. Students from countries around the world seeking to attend college in the United States will find the assistance they need in REA’s publications. For college students seeking advanced degrees, REA publishes test preps for many major graduate school admission examinations in a wide variety of disciplines, including engineering, law, and medicine. Students at every level, in every field, with every ambition can find what they are looking for among REA’s publications.

REA’s practice tests are always based upon the most recently administered exams, and include every type of question that can be expected on the actual exams.

REA’s publications and educational materials are highly regarded and continually receive an unprecedented amount of praise from professionals, instructors, librarians, parents, and students. Our authors are as diverse as the fields represented in the books we publish. They are well-known in their respective disciplines and serve on the faculties of prestigious high schools, colleges, and universities throughout the United States and Canada.

We invite you to visit us at www.rea.com to find out how REA is making the world smarter.

STAFF ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In addition to our authors, we would like to thank Larry B. Kling, Vice President, Editorial, for his overall guidance; Pam Weston, Publisher, for setting the quality standards for production integrity and managing the publication to completion; Michael Reynolds, Managing Editor, for managing revisions; Diane Goldschmidt, Associate Editor, for post-production quality assurance; and Weymouth Design for designing our cover.

Part I

An Approach to Analytical Reasoning Problems

Introduction

Many different particular methodologies can be used to work with the problems presented in the analytical reasoning section of the LSAT. And they all have at least this much in common: You must interpret the rules correctly, represent the situation clearly on a diagram, and make as many accurate deductions as possible to move from what you know to what you don’t know. There is no one right way to work through the LSAT analytical reasoning questions. And certainly it is not the case that you receive extra points for neatness or for consistency in methodology. The goal of any methodology is to help you analyze a problem accurately and thoroughly, so as to be able to answer several questions about what is going on.

As you work with the analytical reasoning games in this book, reread this introduction and methodology section from time to time. The explanations of the particular solutions to the games in this book will refer to this section, and it will become more clear to you the more games you do. Each game you practice on should help you understand the general approach and to learn how to apply principles that will make you more successful with the next one.

Five-Step Procedure

To work analytical reasoning problems efficiently and effectively, we suggest that you take the time to follow a five-step procedure before you tackle the questions. This procedure is more thoroughly explained through the analysis of the particular games, but its basic structure is as follows:

Step 1: Identify the Type

Each problem on an LSAT is unique, as are each of the problems included here, but it helps to think about them as being of three basic types that require you to do three different things:

Put items into groups

Put items in order

Put items into slots

These types are distinguished from one another by the kind of information you are given and by the approach you take to solve them. Most games are of one of these types, though many of them mix elements of two types or even three types. Since different types of games require different approaches, the first step in working any game is to examine the setup and scan the rules to determine what type of game you are working with. The different types of games will be discussed below.

Step 2: Draw the Diagram

Once you know the type of game you are working with, you should design the diagram that you will use to work out the game and answer the questions. Step 1 and this step are both critical, because here you are conceptualizing the problem. You are building the basic structure to understand what is going on in the situation with which you have been presented.

It is usually a good idea to make the diagram as large as you can so there will be enough room to apply information introduced in the individual questions to the basic scenario. It is also a good idea to save your work on the diagram from question to question since things you have learned about what must or might or cannot be the case are likely to be helpful with other questions.

Step 3: Simplify the Rules

The next step is to analyze the rules, making sure that you know exactly what each means. Rewrite each rule in short and clear symbols. Using symbols will enable you to access the rules easily by eliminating all those time-consuming words. Often the rules are stated in terms that make it a challenge to know precisely what they mean, but you must interpret them correctly in order to work the game correctly. Interpreting them and putting them in simple symbols makes what they mean clear and allows you to apply them with ease as you work through the questions.

Some rules will give clear information that can be applied directly to the diagram. In those cases (for example, W always goes third), use your diagram instead of writing a new symbol, always being certain to represent things that must be true on the diagram differently from other things that might be true only in some scenarios or for some questions.

Remember that sometimes there are key rules in the descriptive setup as well as in the list of rules that follows.

Step 4: Deductions

After the first three steps you should feel comfortable that you know what the game is about and should have a general idea of what is going on. If you don’t, then you need to go back and look at the type, diagram, and rules again to figure out what is going on. Now you take the information you have and work with the clues in relation to one another: If this is true and this is true then what else must be true or false? The things that you deduce as true from the things explicitly stated in the rules are just as true for the game as if they had been written in the setup.

Deductions are critical to any game—they are what a game is about.

Relate the clues to one another.

Where appropriate sketch out basic scenarios.

Note on the diagram what must be true and what cannot be true.

Be alert for the type of information that you need for the type of game you are working with.

This step is critical—it is what the analytical reasoning of the LSAT section is testing. Sometimes there will not be many deductions that you can make before moving on to the questions, and the game will seem uncomfortably uncertain. When that happens, try again. Look at each rule in relation to the others. If you still cannot make meaningful deductions, know that the questions will likely force you to make some. But don’t rush to the questions. Try to make the deductions on your own first.

Step 5: Walk Around It

Wait! Do not go to the questions yet. Take a breath and look at what you have determined so far and what is going on in the game. Walk around the game for a while. Look at it from different perspectives. Use what you have learned from your experience (experience you can gain from working the problems in this book). Think about what are likely to be the keys on this type of game and identify key variables or issues for this game. Identify wild cards, groups, splits (these things are explained in the examples on the following pages), unusual rules and the like. What is the game going to make you do, and what do you need to be aware of with the questions? WAIT! Spend the time to figure out what is likely to be tested before you go on to the questions. There will be a lot that you do not know, but think about what that is, and what you will need to know to be more clear.

An analytical game describes a situation about which you can know some things, but not others. It is not a logic problem with a single solution, and it can be frustrating and discouraging to approach it that way It presents a circumstance, but incompletely, so that you can be certain about some things but not others. The questions are testing how well you understand that circumstance.

Go through these steps before working the questions. It may seem slow, but in fact it will make dealing with the questions much easier and more efficient. Remember: What is being tested is your ability to understand the information presented and your ability to relate its parts to one another. You must be clear on the information, so take the time to analyze it. If you miss a deduction or a key rule, the questions will force you to discover it, but you are better off if you find it first. Focus consciously both on what you know and on what you do not know.

Basic Types

There are three common basic game types. The boundaries between them are sometimes fuzzy, and many games combine elements of more than one type, but it is useful to know the different pure types and to know how to approach them so that no matter what particular game you are faced with, you can decide what operations you will have to perform.

Type 1 : Groups

One common type of game gives you a list of items and requires you to build from one to four groups made up of those items. The rules here are likely to involve if statements that are critical to interpret correctly. (If A is included in a group then C must be included.)

Interpreting the if statement takes these steps:

Simplify what it says. What is sufficient to produce what else? Make it clear. If A then C.

An if statement means exactly one other thing, called the contrapositive. If the statement is If A then C, then to get the contrapositive reverse and negate the two terms: if not C then not A.

The statement TELLS YOU NOTHING ELSE. If you know that A is not included it tells you nothing about C. Likewise, if you know that C is included, it tells you nothing about A.

The ability to understand what If statements mean and do not mean is the single most tested reasoning skill on the LSAT.

Working with conditional statements

A conditional statement establishes a relationship between two things. It asserts that when one of those things is present (or perhaps absent) then another thing is present or absent.

Consider this statement:

If A is included, then C is included.

In the above statement A is a sufficient condition for C. That means that having A is enough to know that you must have C.

In that statement, C is a necessary condition for A, since you cannot have A without having C. It is necessary that C be there in the case that A is there.

Steps for working with conditional statements

1. Determine exactly what the statement means.

This step involves examining the statement to distinguish accurately between the sufficient condition and the necessary condition. It is crucial to know which is which.

The basic form is this: If the sufficient condition is there, then the necessary condition is there as well. That can be represented in this way: sufficient → necessary, which means, If the sufficient condition then the necessary condition.

To determine which part of a statement is the sufficient condition, ask which item involved in the statement carries the other with it. In other words, ask which of the components of the statement is the one whose presence allows you to know for sure that the other one is there. The sufficient condition makes something else happen; it has consequences. You cannot have the sufficient condition present alone. It will always drag the necessary condition into the picture as well.

On the other hand, you can have the necessary condition alone (i.e., without the sufficient condition). The necessary condition can be present without the sufficient condition being present.

Once you have determined the relationship between the two items in a conditional statement, represent that relationship clearly with the sufficient condition, followed by an arrow, followed by the necessary condition to indicate that in the circumstance that the sufficient condition is there, the necessary condition is also there (S → N).

This act of interpretation can be difficult because there are very many different ways to say the same thing.

Each of the following statements means exactly the same thing as the others, and you can use this list as an aid in learning to interpret conditional statements:

If you have measles, then you’re sick.

You are sick if you have measles.

You can have measles only if you’re sick.

In the case that you have measles, you must be sick.

Only if you’re sick can you have measles.

You cannot have measles unless you’re sick.

You cannot have measles without being sick.

Interpret the statement and put it in basic sufficient form: S → N. The first example in the above list fits this format exactly. You could symbolize this statement by writing, measles → sick, or better yet, M → S.

Here is a tip to help you on your way to interpreting conditional statements correctly. The part of the statement that follows the if is usually the sufficient condition. This changes, however, when the statement uses the language of only if. Only if introduces the necessary condition. You can see this by comparing the first statement in the list above with the third. They mean exactly the same thing. Unless is a little more complicated. One way to approach unless is this: take the word unless to introduce the necessary condition, and then negate what comes before it to derive the sufficient condition. Thus You cannot have measles unless you are sick becomes M → S.

Any conditional statement can be expressed in two different forms, and it is useful to state it in both forms when working through a game.

The basic form says if the sufficient condition is there, then the necessary condition is there: S → N.

The other form is called the contrapositive. It follows the thought that if you do not have the necessary condition you cannot have the sufficient condition. So the statement if A then C also means If not C then not A. The contrapositive is the second form.

Once you have the original conditional statement clear you can derive the contrapositive with this simple operation:

2. Reverse the two items in the original conditional statement and negate them both.

so S → N can also be expressed as -N → -S

and A → C can also be expressed as -C → -A.

3. Think about what the statement does not mean

A conditional statement does not create a group. The two items in a conditional statement must both be the case only in two of four possible situations involving those items (unless other rules apply).

In a conditional statement A → C, A and C must both be included when A is included. And since the statement also means -C → -A, it means that neither can be included in the case that C is not included. But the information that C is included alone tells us nothing about A. And the information that A is not included tells us nothing about C.

The analytical games will test to see that you understand both what the conditional statements mean, and what they do not mean.

4. Summary

When dealing with conditional statements do these things:

Interpret the statement to determine which is the sufficient condition and which is the necessary condition.

Restate the statement in its contrapositive form.

Take the two forms of the statement together and note that you cannot have the two sufficient conditions at the same time, but that you can (but not must) have the two necessary conditions at the same time.

Example:

Anyone with measles is a sick person.

Measles → Sick

Not sick → not measles

Cannot have measles and not sick, but could have sick and not measles.

With grouping games the questions often have to do with what you don’t see—with side effects. If a particular set of items is in group 1, what does that leave for group 2, and can that be possible?

When dealing with grouping games it is critical to be aware of items that must be together (blocks) and items that cannot be together (splits).

It is also important when dealing with grouping games to work out basic scenarios in order to know what is going on. When making deductions and walking around it, ask some basic questions to be clear about the situation.

Does each item have to be included?

Can an item be in more than one group?

Is there a set number in each group?

If not, what are the possibilities for the numbers of items in the groups?

What are the wildcards, or the items that no rules affect directly?

Are there two or three basic scenarios that will dominate the game?

Is there a item or two that controls several others?

These are the things that you identify when you are making deductions and walking around the game. They help you be alert for what the questions will do and they prepare you to deal with the questions efficiently.

Work through the following example:

GROUPING EXAMPLE

Eight items: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H must be placed in two groups of four each: group 1 and group 2. Each item must be placed in exactly one group, according to the following rules:

A and B must be in the same group.

C and D must be in different groups.

E is in group 2.

If F is in group 1 then G is in group 1.

Take this game though the five steps of working a game before going to the questions:

Type: This is the basic structure of any grouping game. A game may use names for the items or groups, and it might state the rules in more complex language, but if it is a game that requires you to put things in groups, it will boil down to something like this. If the test gives you names for items, reduce them to first letters (almost never will two use the same first letter). You don’t care what the items are (people or things) or what the groups are doing. All you care about is that you are placing items in groups.

Diagram: The basic diagram for a grouping game will include a list of the items and a diagram distinguishing between the groups. Make it large and leave plenty of room to work. Ordinarily you do not want to waste time erasing. Also you want to keep your work from question to question so that you will know what scenarios work, should you encounter a question about what could or must be true.

Simplify the rules: Now simplify the rules by stating them in symbols and place them beside the diagram so you can access them easily. The rule that places E into group 2 can be incorporated directly into the diagram.

Deductions: Now look at the rules you have written down and ask what else they tell you about the groups. Begin with the if statement and write out its contrapositive. The statement, If F is in 1 then G is in 1 also means that if G is not in 1 then F is not in 1. Now consider the FG rule in relation to the AB block and the CD split. The split means that either C or D must be in each group. You can incorporate this into the diagram. Since that is the case, it is not possible for the AB group and the FG group to be in 1 at the same time, because that would put five items into 1. You can state this as an if statement: If A/B is in 1, then F is not in 1, which places it in 2. And the contrapositive: if F is in 1 then AB are not in 1, which means they are in 2.

Walk Around It: Before you go to the questions, take the time to look at what you have and think about what is likely to be important in the game. The split you already have indicated on the diagram is sure to be a key in this type of game, as is the deduction you have made about AB and F. Remind yourself of what the if statement says and doesn’t say: you could have G in 1 without F, or F in 2 with or without G. They are a group only when F is in 1 or when G is in 2. Remind yourself to be on the lookout for side effects: often the question will deal directly with the items in one group, but what you have to figure out are the effects of that for the other group. Note that H is a wild card: No rule affects it directly, but its placement could be very important.

QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following could be a complete and accurate list of the items in the two groups?

(A) 1:C,A,F,B;2:G,E,D,H

(B) 1:B,F,G,C;2:E,A,D,H

(C) 1:D,F,G,C;2:B,A,H,E

(D) 1:C,A,H,B;2:G,E,D,F

(E) 1: G, D, E, F; 2: C, B, H, A

This is a typical first question. Very often, the first question is one that can be answered on the basis of the rules alone without any further deductions. Where the game involves some kind of list, the question will frequently do what this one does: give five lists and ask which of the five does not violate the rules. On these questions a good approach is to take the rules one by one and ask whether any of the answers violate that rule. An answer that violates a rule can be eliminated from further consideration. Not only does this enable you to answer the question quickly, it also gives you the opportunity to review the rules again and be certain that you understand them correctly. If you find no right answer or more than one right answer, then you have probably misunderstood a rule.

Take the AB block rule: answer (B) violates that, and so is eliminated.

Now take the CD split: answer (C) violates that, and so is eliminated (once an answer is eliminated, do not waste time checking it against the other rules).

The rule that E must be in 2 is violated by (E).

The FG rule is violated by (A).

Only answer (D) violates no rule.

2. Which is a pair of items that cannot both be in group 1?

(A) C, B

(B) H, F

(C) G, A

(D) B, F

(E) D, G

This question might be a rules question. The rules tell you that E cannot be in 1 and that C and D cannot be together in 1. Check first to see whether any of the answers violates one of those rules. When you see that the answers do not violate the rules, you know it is a question testing a deduction. In this case you have already made the deduction: If A/B is in 1, then F is not in 1, so you know the answer is (D). If you had not seen that key deduction before, then you would have to make it now. You could do so by testing the answers on your diagram until you find the one that could not work. Once you make that deduction, remember that it always applies in the game. It might be useful for future questions. Often a key deduction will provide the answer to several questions.

3. If H is in group 2, which is a pair of items that could also be in group 2?

(A) C, B

(B) D, F

(C) G, E

(D) A, C

(E) D, G

This is a side effects question. It calls your attention to group 2, but it is really about what is going on in group 1. You cannot have both FG and AB in group 1. If H is in 2, it is there with E and either C or D. Since there is only one place left in 2, AB cannot be in 2 and must be in 1. To prevent FG from being in 1 also, F must be placed in 2. This is testing your understanding of the relationship between F and G: they must both be in 1 when F is in 1, but G can be in 1 without F. So the answer is (B). Side effects questions like this are very common in grouping games.

Type 2: Ordering

Most LSATs will include a game that requires you to put items in order. A set of items will be presented and the task will be to put them in order from first to last (or low to high, inside to outside, left to right, east to west). The resulting order may place items in a specific spot in the order (e.g. A ranks third), but the critical point will not be filling discreet slots, but establishing a relative order among items.

The rules usually indicate most clearly that what is at hand is an ordering game. Typical rules for games which require you to put things in order establish the relative order of two or three of the items. In working the game, it is necessary to look at those rules in relation to one another to establish a basic order among the items and to identify items that are flexible. Questions will then ask about that overall order and sometimes add an additional piece of information to constrain the order further.

It is common to mix ordering problems with groups or slots. Sometimes it may be necessary to work a game as both a grouping game and, within the groups, as an ordering game. When it is not clear whether to approach a game as an ordering game or a slot game (see below) ask whether the key seems to be the relative order of the items, which determines the slot or slots each might occupy, or is it items relative to slots rather than to each other that dominates the game.

As a practical matter it will sometimes happen that you change approaches while working with a particular game because you discover you need to think about it differently in order to deal effectively with the questions. While a goal is to understand the type of game and to approach it most efficiently from the start, a more important goal is to answer questions correctly, and so such changes should be made as needed. The more practice you have, the more likely you will be to see how the game works from the start.

Things to be alert for in ordering games:

Be careful with the order: it may be first to last, highest to lowest, left to right, inside to outside, north to south, etc. Be certain to be clear on your diagram and in interpreting the rules which side is which.

Be careful with the rules. Do they say that one item is immediately before another or sometime before another?

If a rule mentions three items, be certain you have sorted out the relationships correctly. It is a good idea to separate out the relationships and represent them as separate rules.

ORDERING EXAMPLE

Six items: A, B, C, D, E, F must be ranked in order from low to high with place 1 being lowest and place 6 being highest. Each item occupies a unique place in the order. The order is governed by the following rules:

F is ranked lower than B.

C is ranked higher than B and lower than E.

A is ranked higher than F.

Take this game though the five steps for working a game before going to the questions:

Type: This is a pure ordering game. It does have places or slots from 1 to 6, but the rules are all about the items relative to one another. The order of the items will decide their places, so the order is what you will need to figure out in general, insofar as you can, and then with each question as new information is added.

Diagram: The basic diagram for an ordering game will include a list of the items and a notation to indicate the beginning and end of the order. Make it large and leave plenty of room to work. Ordinarily you do not want to waste time erasing. You also want to keep your work from question to question so that you will know what scenarios work, should you encounter a question about what could or must be true.

Simplify the rules: Now simplify the rules by stating them in symbols and placing them beside the diagram so you can access them easily. Be certain that you have the relative relationships represented correctly. With ordering rules it is easy to reverse items in the order, so, in this example, be sure that you have represented B as lower than C and not as higher. Your symbols should clearly distinguish between what comes sometime before or after something else (as all the rules in this example do) and what comes immediately before or after something else. Now that the clues have been represented as symbols, you should be able to leave the words behind (except in the case that you use the first question to test your interpretation of the rules) and work only with your diagram and symbols.

Deductions: Now look at the rules you have written down and ask what else they tell you about the order of the items. With an ordering game it is a good idea to begin with an item that is mentioned more than once in the rules and just place it in the middle of the diagram. Then follow the other rules and establish the relative relationships. Take B here as the starter and write it down. Now add the information from the first rule: F.B. Next add the information from the second rule (actually these were stated initially as a single rule, but your splitting them apart makes it more likely that you will represent the order among the three accurately): F..B..C. You just deduced that C is higher than F. Now add the information about E: E.B..C..E. Although the rules didn’t say so directly, they have enabled you to deduce the relative order of four of the six items. The final rule is not as constraining, but it does give some information about A and F directly, and about A and F, B, and C indirectly. While A must be higher than F, it can fall anywhere else in the order. There are rules that deal with five of the six items. Identify the sixth (D) and note that it can go anywhere in the order.

"Walk Around It": Before you go to the questions, take the time to look at what you have and think about what is likely to be important in the game. One way to get comfortable with an ordering game is to think about what can come first and last. Here the only items that could be first are F and D, and that observation leads you to see that F can only be first or second. The last item might be D, E, or A, and having that thought reminds you of A’s flexibility. There are only two real variables here: (1) Where is A? and (2) Where is F? Realize that you do not know those things, and that the questions might give you information to answer one or both of the questions.

QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following could be a complete and accurate list of the items listed from lowest to highest?

(A) D, A, F, B, C, E

(B) F, B, E, A, C, D

(C) D, F, B, C, A, E

(D) D, B, F, C, A, E

(E) F, D, C, A, B, E

This is a typical first question. Very often, the first question is one that can be answered on the basis of the rules alone without any further deductions. Where the game involves some kind of order, the question will frequently do what this one does: give five orders and ask which of the five does not violate the rules. On these questions a good approach is to take the rules one by one and ask whether any of the answers violate that rule. You will get to the correct answer quickly, and you will have an opportunity (though not a fool proof one) to check to see that you have not made mistakes in interpretation. An answer that violates a rule can be eliminated from further consideration. If you find no right answer or more than one right answer, then you have probably misunderstood a rule.

Start with the rule that F is lower than B. Answer (D) violates that rule, and so is eliminated.

The rule that C must be higher than B is violated by answer (E), so it must not be correct.

The rule that C is lower than E is violated by answer (B).

Answer (A) violates the rule that places A higher than F.

In this case the correct answer is (C), which obeys all the rules.

2. Which of the following is a complete and accurate list of items that could be in position 3?

(A) B, C

(B) F, B, C

(C) D, A, B

(D) C, D, B, A

(E) D, B, F, C, A

This question asks about an absolute slot, slot number 3. But, in fact, the question is about possible orders: how could these six items be put in order to leave different items in the third position? If you look at the six items, you know that both D and A are highly flexible and could easily be in the third position. F, on the other hand, is inflexible and can be only in the first or second positions. Similarly, E must be preceded by at least three other items and, thus, could not be in the third position. And so you deduce that the list of items that could be in position 3 includes D A B and C. The correct answer is located in the choice (D).

3. If D is adjacent to A, which of the following must be false?

(A) B is in position 2.

(B) C is in position 5.

(C) F is in position 1.

(D) A is in position 4.

(E) E is in position 5.

With the previous question you were able to figure out the answer and then locate the one answer choice that was correct. With questions that ask what must be false or what could be true it might take a little bit more work: it might be necessary to test each of the choices to determine whether it works. But try to do this efficiently, deducing what you can from what the question gives you and then asking, given your deductions, whether the positioning in the answer choice can take place. The question places D beside A. Since both of those items are highly flexible, their placement adjacent to each other would not seem to do much to constrain the other items. Since F must be some time before A, it does place F in position one, and so answer choice (C) must be true and cannot be false. A first glance may not reveal any problem with the remaining choices. But then look at answer (E). If D and A are together, either one of them is in the sixth position or E is in the sixth position. But if D or A is in the sixth position, then the other one of the pair is in the fifth position. So it would not be possible for E to be in the fifth position since only A, D, or E can be in the sixth position, and, therefore, if E is not in the sixth position, it must be in the fourth position. So the correct answer here, the one which indicates something that must be false, is (E).

Type 3: Slots

With grouping games your task is to collect items together, paying attention to which items must stay together and which items must be apart. Ordering games require you to focus on the positions of items relative to one another, and any absolute order that is produced will be created primarily by understanding that relative order. The third basic type of game creates discreet, well-defined slots that must be filled or not with individual items. Unlike grouping games, slot games do not collect items together, but place them in particular positions. And unlike ordering games, slot games do not deal with items relative to one another, but with items relative to slots.

In slot games, the slots are defined carefully by either one or two criteria. Often these are schedules, defining the slots as days of the week or hours of the day during which things take place. But they are not necessarily schedules, and can be defined in a variety of different ways. There might be several items which must be distributed among the slots, or it might be that each slot is filled with a yes or a no, an item included or an item excluded, or something of that sort.

With grouping games and ordering games it is most efficient to avoid making a matrix, since that suggests that each item has a permanent, distinct place, thereby obscuring the flexibility of the situation. With slot games, on the other hand, it is important to identify those distinct slots carefully. How can you tell when you first approach a game whether the most efficient way to work with it is to treat it as one that creates these distinct slots? If the rules have to do with the relative order of items, or if the rules lead to collecting things together without distinguishing places within the group, then it is probably not a game to work with slots. But if the rules have to do with absolute placement of items in something like days of the week, or cities, or places at a table, then it will be most effective to define the slots very carefully and to place or not place a single item in each as the rules and the questions require.

Distinguish between the criteria defining the slots and the items to be placed in them. The slots themselves are not variable, and it is important to define them well. If they are defined by two criteria, use a matrix and distinguish clearly between the criteria defining the slots. The items will be more variable and flexible in most cases, and they will be used to fill in and the places in the matrix or schedule. The danger with using a matrix, the reason why it is probably not a good idea to use one with grouping games or ordering games, is that it tends to suggest that there is only one possible solution. It is always important to remember that the games create situations about which you know some things and don’t know others, and it is crucial to be as clear on what is flexible, on what you don’t know, as it is to be clear on what to do know. And so in drawing a matrix for a slots game, it is important to identify clearly areas of uncertainty as well as definite placement of items in slots.

Keys to slots games:

Deductions are especially important in these games. The rules may place an item or two, but often you can deduce the placement of several other items, and these deductions will be necessary to working the game well.

Questions in these games often give one or two pieces of information that create a chain reaction. Knowing that an item is placed in a particular slot often constrains what can or must be placed in another slot, which, in turn, may determine what can or must be placed in a third slot.

The situation in a slots game is often more constrained than it seems based only on the rules. Most of the time the placement of items into one or two slots will have critical effects for the rest of the situation. In walking around the game, consider those possibilities.

SLOTS EXAMPLE

Each of boxes W, X, Y, and Z is divided into two parts: 1 and 2. Each of eight items, two each of A, B, C and D, must be placed in exactly one part of one box, according to these conditions:

B’s must be in