Rotating Fluids in Engineering and Science

ROTATING FLUIDS

IN ENGINEERING

AND SCIENCE

James P. Vanyo

Department of Mechanical and Environmental Engineering

Department of Geological Sciences

University of California, Santa Barbara

DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.

Mineola, New York

Copyright

Copyright © 1993 by James P. Vanyo

All rights reserved.

Bibliographical Note

This Dover edition, first published in 2001, is an unabridged reprint of the work originally published by Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, Mass., in 1993.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Vanyo, James P.

Rotating fluids in engineering and science / James P. Vanyo.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

eISBN 13: 978-0-486-16198-3

1. Fluid mechanics. 2. Rotating masses of fluids. I. Title.

TA357 .V36 2001

620.1'06—dc21

2001017222

Manufactured in the United States by Courier Corporation

41704202

www.doverpublications.com

Contents

Preface

PART I   Fluid Mechanics Review

1     Rotating Fluid Phenomena

2     Mass and Momentum Conservation

2.1    Eulerian Mechanics

2.2    Mass Conservation

2.3    Force and Momentum

2.4    Navier-Stokes Equations

2.5    Dimensionless Equations and Ratios

3     Potential (Inviscid) Flow

3.1    Bernoulli Equation

3.2    Stream Functions and Velocity Potentials

3.3    Flow Past a Circular Cylinder

3.4    Pressure Components

4     Boundary Layers and Turbulence

4.1    Introduction and Two Solutions by Stokes

4.2    Prandtl Boundary Layer Equations

4.3    Flat Plate and Cylinder Solutions

4.4    Momentum Integral Equation

4.5    Turbulence and Stability

5     Wave Theory

5.1    Introduction and Definitions

5.2    Longitudinal Waves

5.3    Transverse Waves

5.4    Mach Cones

PART II   Rotating Fluid Theory

6     Rotating Coordinate Systems

6.1    Intermediate Reference Frames

6.2    Fluids in a Rotating Frame

6.3    Ekman and Rossby Numbers

6.4    Application Examples

7     Coriolis Phenomena

7.1    Coriolis Forces vs. Accelerations

7.2    Coriolis and Angular Momentum

7.3    Coriolis Force-Acceleration Criteria

7.4    Application Examples

8     Rotation, Vorticity, and Circulation

8.1    Rotation

8.2    Vorticity

8.3    Circulation and Stokes Theorem

8.4    Application Examples

9     Vorticity as the Variable

9.1    Vorticity in Navier-Stokes Equations

9.2    Viscous Production of Vorticity

9.3    Relative Vorticity

9.4    Application Examples

10     Vortex Dynamics

10.1    Vortex Interactions in Two Dimensions

10.2    Conservation of Vorticity and Circulation

10.3    The Formula of Biot and Savart

10.4    Rankine's Combined Vortex

10.5    Vortex Intensification by Stretching

10.6    Application Examples

11     Secondary Flows

11.1    Boundary Layer Review

11.2    A Rotating Disk in a Stationary Fluid

11.3    A Rotating Fluid above a Stationary Surface

11.4    Enclosed Secondary Flows

11.5    Application Examples

12     Circular Pathline Flows

12.1    Theoretical Criteria

12.2    Some Important Flows

12.3    Application Examples

13     Rotation and Inertial Waves

13.1    Rayleigh Instability

13.2    Stability of Circular Pathline Flows

13.3    Rossby Waves and Inertial Waves

13.4    Atmospheric Rossby Waves I

13.5    Instability and Turbulence

13.6    Application Examples

PART III   Rotating Fluid Applications

14     Pipes, Channels, and Rivers

14.1    Swirl in Straight Sections

14.2    Secondary Flow in Curved Sections

14.3    River Meandering

14.4    Abutment Undercutting

14.5   Ştudy and Research Projects

15     Rotors and Centrifuges

15.1    Thin Disk in a Housing

15.2    Flow in a Cylindrical Annulus

15.3    Centrifuges

15.4    Cyclone Separators

15.5    Study and Research Projects

16     Wings, Lift, and Drag

16.1    Circulation and Lift (Inviscid)

16.2    Circulation and Lift (Viscous)

16.3    Kutta-Zhukowskii Theory

16.4    Finite Wings and Vortices

16.5    Vertical Momentum and Induced Drag

16.6    Study and Research Projects

17     Turbomachinery

17.1    Definitions and Classifications

17.2    Internal Flow Characteristics

17.3    Torque and Power Output

17.4    Flow Calculations

17.5    Performance Criteria

17.6    Study and Research Projects

18     Liquids in Precessing Spacecraft

18.1    Rigid-Body Dynamics

18.2    Energy Dissipation and Stability

18.3    Solution: Analysis and Computation

18.4    Solution: Scaled Experiments

18.5    Study and Research Projects

19     The Earth, Sun, and Moon

19.1    Introduction

19.2    Earth and Earth-Sun-Moon Dynamics

19.3    Motions in the Liquid Core

19.4    Chandler Wobble

19.5    Tides and Earth-Sun-Moon Dynamics

19.6    Study and Research Projects

20     Atmospheric Circulation

20.1    Introduction

20.2    Convective Flow Patterns

20.3    Coriolis Phenomena

20.4    Planetary Flow Dynamics

20.5    Atmospheric Rossby Waves II

20.6    Study and Research Projects

21     Oceanic Circulation

21.1    Flow Patterns and Energy Sources

21.2    Coriolis and Oceanic Gyres

21.3    Western Intensification and Elevated Centers

21.4    Localized Flow Phenomena

21.5    Some Quantitative Analyses

21.6    Study and Research Projects

22     Intense Atmospheric Vortices

22.1    Whirlwinds and Dust Devils

22.2    Large-Scale Vortex Storms

22.3    Hurricanes (Typhoons)

22.4    Tornadoes

22.5    Study and Research Projects

Appendices

A    Mathematical Relationships

A.1    Vectors

A.2    Matrices

A.3    Direction Cosine Matrices

A.4    Dyadics

and Tensors

A.5    The Del Operator ∇

A.6    Operations Using ∇

B    Stream Functions and Velocity Potentials

B.1    Summary

B.2    Basic Flows

B.3    Sums of Two Flows

B.4    Cylinders and Vortex Pairs

C    Equations of Motion

C.1    Cartesian

C.2    Cylindrical

C.3    Spherical

D    Fluid Properties

D.1    Units

D.2    Properties of Air

D.3    Properties of Water

D.4    Common Gases and Liquids

D.5    Compressible Fluids

E    Geophysical Data

E.1    The Earth

E.2    The Sun

E.3    The Moon

E.4    The Planets

E.5    The Oceans

E.6    The Standard Atmosphere

References

Index

Preface

Rotating Fluids in Engineering and Science was written to help make rotating fluid phenomena more accessible to students and researchers in the field of fluid mechanics. The book is designed to be used as an upper-division text and/or beginning graduate text. It is also intended for practicing engineers and scientists engaged in research or in design and development projects requiring a knowledge of rotating fluid theory. The book leads the reader systematically through rotating flow theory and applications, and shows that the theory and applications can be mastered easily by students and practicing professionals. It is hoped that the text will help bridge the gap between undergraduate preparation in fluid mechanics, and the understanding needed to benefit from professional journal articles and more advanced monographs in this field.

The reader is assumed to be familiar with partial differential equations and vector mathematics, although important parts of these are reviewed in Appendix A. The reader is also assumed to have had a junior level undergraduate course or course sequence in fluid mechanics. Part I (Chapters 1 through 5) provides a review of the basic fluid theory needed in the remainder of the text, including definitions of terminology and notation. Part II (Chapters 6 through 13) extends fluid theory to concepts, theories, and equations specific to rotating fluids, including frequent references to vorticity and vortices. Because it is sometimes difficult to apply equations to quantitative applications, each chapter in Part II includes solved quantitative examples.

Part III (Chapters 14 through 22) presents important application areas that rely heavily on rotating fluid theory for their understanding. An attempt is made to include enough of each application area so that each chapter can be read independent of other texts, although the chapters are not intended to replace a need for other books and reference manuals. Each chapter in Part III includes a list of suggested projects and study assignments for groups and/or individuals. They vary in difficulty and type; some are analytical while others are numerical or experimental.

Constant density and viscosity flows are emphasized, although thermal and compressibility phenomena are included. Data and quantitative examples are presented in both dimensional and nondimensional forms. Most dimensional quantities are expressed in SI and cgs units, although other units commonly seen in U.S. applications are also illustrated, e.g., ft, lbf, psi, gpm, and mph. A table of conversion factors is included in . The author combines laboratory demonstrations and student projects with lectures. The text continues this format by including experimental and practical results to support discussions of theory. It also includes references to advanced texts and journals as an aid in formulating professional level research projects.

The University of California, Santa Barbara, follows a quarter system of instruction, ten lecture weeks followed by an examination week. As an undergraduate text for students who have completed a two quarter fluids sequence, the author devotes one week to Part I Fluid Mechanics Review, then five weeks to Part II Rotating Fluid Theory, and the remaining four weeks to four or five chapters, of most interest to that group of students, selected from Part III Rotating Fluid Applications. The emphasis is on helping students make the transition from an undergraduate pattern of weekly, precisely defined, homework problem sets to a more professional level, i.e., applying theory to open-ended complex problem areas, often including a need to make reasonable approximations to achieve success.

Several quizzes during the first 6 weeks, rather than homework sets, are used to promote knowledge of relevant theory and equations; these are followed by individual or small group projects selected/assigned from Part III. Again, the emphasis is to get the students into projects typical of real-world work experiences as quickly as possible. Their interest will be stimulated, and they will, on their own, restudy the Part I and II chapters as they develop their projects. Written and oral project reports replace a final examination. A semester presentation would benefit from additional time for more detail and greater depth, especially in selection and development of application projects. When using the text in a graduate course, much of Part II is covered as review, and the text is augmented with additional source material from professional journals and advanced monographs.

Rotating Fluids in Engineering and Science was developed over the last 22 years by the author at the University of California, Santa Barbara. The format and content of the text, as it developed, was in response to, and aided by discussions with, the many students who have taken my courses on rotating fluids or who assisted with laboratory projects. Two students, R. Hadley and S. Stojanovich, checked solutions for many of the example problems in Figures 1.4 and 1.5; and P. Wilde suggested and solved Example 9.3. 5. McLean assisted by reviewing material on oceanography, and L. Pauley made other valuable suggestions.

I want to thank all contributors for their help; the editorial staff and reviewers of Butterworth-Heinemann for their guidance; and I especially wish to thank Christine Townsley for the many, many hours of careful, patient, and cheerful assistance in typing several preliminary drafts, and finally in preparing the text in camera-ready form.

Professor James P. Vanyo

University of California

Santa Barbara

PART I

Fluid Mechanics Review

Chapter 1

Rotating Fluid Phenomena

Many areas of engineering and science involve the rotation of various objects; in science the object sometimes is the earth; in engineering it might be a turbine rotor or a space vehicle. In most cases the object also involves the rotation of internal or external fluids. Sometimes a rotating fluid is the principal phenomena of interest; at other times the fluid is merely an unwanted participant in the motion. In either event, success or failure of the analysis can depend critically on understanding and predicting rotating fluid phenomena.

The basic theory of fluid rotation and vorticity distinguishes between vorticity and curved (e.g., circular) translation of fluid elements. Figure 1.1 illustrates smooth uniform flow of a viscous liquid in a channel. This laminar flow, when fully developed, has a parabolic velocity distribution. Ink or dye slowly injected in the flow would move in straight lines indicating straight streamlines (fluid motion). However, small objects placed in the flow would also rotate as they move, indicating that the flow has vorticity, i.e., the infinitesimal fluid elements rotate as they translate along straight lines. Figure 1.2 illustrates a flow field called an inviscid vortex where all fluid elements move in circular paths. However, small objects here would not rotate, indicating a fluid that is not rotating, merely translating in circular paths. The two flows illustrate two extremes, one that has straight pathlines but fluid element rotation, and the second that has circular pathlines but fluid elements which do not rotate. Viscosity in the first flow produces the fluid element rotation called vorticity, which is absent in the second flow. Rotation, vorticity, and circulation are described and quantified in Chapter 8. Figure 1.3 shows a smoke ring. Its motion is often modelled as a toroidal inviscid vortex. Any cross section through the toroid is approximately an inviscid vortex as in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.4 shows water in a cylinder. In the left photograph, both the cylinder and the water are stationary, and all the colored water, slightly less dense than the clear water, is in the top one-eighth of the cylinder. In the right photograph, the cylinder has been impulsively accelerated to a constant angular velocity, and the water is gradually being spun up to the angular velocity of the cylinder. Liquid spin-up is achieved about 1% by viscous interaction at the cylinder side walls and about 99% by a viscous secondary flow at the cylinder bottom. Centrifugal force inside this very thin (almost invisible) spinning bottom boundary layer moves clear water outward and then up along the outside cylinder wall. Colored water in the interior is drawn downward until all the water will be pumped outward through the very thin, bottom boundary layer. In this experiment, a 2% buoyancy of the colored water is opposing the pumping action and causes the boundary between the clear and colored water to be tapered rather than cylindrical. More complex rotating fluid phenomena, such as internal waves and vortex stretching, are involved during a reverse spin-down process.

Figure 1.1: Laminar flow of a viscous fluid in a straight channel moves along straight streamlines. The fluid elements rotate, however, because of viscosity. The streamlines can be observed by injecting ink into the flow, and the rotation (vorticity) can be observed by the rotation of small corks placed in the flow.

Rotating masses of fluid exhibit other unusual properties. Figure 1.5 shows the difference between flow patterns created by suddenly dumping a quantity of similar density colored water into nonrotating water, (top two photographs), and flow patterns created by the same act, but using rotating water as shown in the bottom two photographs. Typical turbulent eddies are generated in the nonrotating water. Such random motions are not possible in a rotating liquid; instead, permissible flows have a distinctly two-dimensional property as shown in the photographs.

Figure 1.2: An inviscid vortex flow has circular streamlines. In a perfect such flow, corks would move in circular paths but would not rotate, exactly the reverse of Figure 1.1. This experiment can only be approximated in the laboratory because fluid viscosity will introduce some vorticity, the fluid surface will not be flat, and a secondary flow along the bottom will pump liquid radially inward. A very small Vin and Vout is needed in the laboratory to maintain the flow.

Rotating fluid theory helps explain important application areas in engineering and science. These include many subtle fluid-structure interactions that produce vorticity and secondary flows. For example, when a viscous fluid moves through a bend in a pipe or channel, differences in velocity and pressure between the central portion and the boundary layers near solid surfaces induce secondary flows similar to those on the bottom surface of the cylinder in Figure 1.4. These secondary flows cause energy losses in engineering applications and erosion when the channel is a river bed. Figure 1.6 shows a typical result. Bottom secondary flows and sediment move transversely from the outside of a bend toward the inside of that bend. Any slight departure from straight line motion becomes more and more pronounced, gradually reaching the condition shown in Figure 1.6. If a flood condition occurs, the river may overflow the meandering channel and erode a nearly straight channel to repeat a new cycle.

Figure 1.3: Air flow in this cross section of a smoke ring approximates the vortex flow of Figure 1.2. Toroidal vortex patterns illustrate important fluid theories and are a part of typical turbulent flows. Reproduced with permission from Magarvey and MacLatchy (1964).

Figure 1.4: On the left, the cylinder, the clear water, and a top layer of colored water are motionless. As the cylinder begins to rotate, at right, clear water is pumped through a thin layer on the rotating bottom surface radially outward and up along the cylinder wall displacing the top (still nonspinning) colored water inward and down. The radial flow along the bottom surface is referred to as a secondary flow. The colored water is about 2% buoyant. Photos by Vanyo and Byram.

Figure 1.5: Turbulence induced by dropping colored water into nonrotating water (top two photographs) includes toroidal patterns as in Figure 1.3. It differs markedly from turbulence induced in water rotating with constant angular velocity as shown in the bottom two photographs. Turbulence is severely constrained by the characteristic two-dimensional (2-D) nature of a rotating fluid. Photos by Vanyo and Byram.

Vorticity, generated especially in boundary layers, is typical of all real fluid flows. Integration of vector vorticity over a finite surface leads to the concept of circulation along the curve enclosing the surface. This in turn has been shown to be related to lift of moving objects. Although lift of an aircraft wing is related to a difference in pressure top and bottom, lift can be expressed also as circulation about the wing represented by an equivalent vortex coincident with the wing. This vortex cannot simply end when the wing tip is reached. It is deflected rearward to form wing tip vortices that are visible at appropriate speeds and atmospheric conditions as shown in Figure 1.7. The parallel vortices interact and regroup as a series of toroids similar to the smoke ring of Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.6: This photograph shows the typical meander pattern for rivers flowing down a slightly inclined wide valley. Secondary currents, as in Figure 1.4, along the bottom carry sediment from the outside edge of curves to the inside. The Chena River just east of Fairbanks, AK, is shown in the photograph. Photo by Vanyo.

An efficient wing design minimizes wasted vortex motion. Soaring birds, as in Figure 1.8, have very efficient wing tip designs for slow flight conditions. They apparently can feel and manipulate wing tip vortices using their individually controllable wing tip feathers. The bird in Figure 1.8 is a California condor in flight. Note in particular how carefully the condor has manipulated its wing tip feathers, both to reduce drag and to control its flight direction. Some long range modem aircraft, e.g., the new Boeing 747-400, mimic the condor by adding large winglets tilted upward at each wing tip.

Figure 1.7: Condensation trails sometimes make wing tip vortices visible. In part they are extensions of lift circulation patterns about the wing, but they also represent evidence of unnecessary energy losses. These were produced by a B-47 aircraft and illustrate an instability of parallel vortices; they degenerate into a series of toroidal vortices. Photos at 15 second intervals. Reproduced with permission from Crow (1970).

Figure 1.8: Soaring birds like this California condor increase their flight efficiency by manipulating wing tip vortices with individually controllable wing tip feathers. Photo by D. Clendenen, Condor Recovery Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife.

Figure 1.9: A centrifugal pump admits fluid along the axis and spins it to a high rotational speed. Centrifugal force then induces a pressure differential and outflow at the periphery. The inlet pipe and flange (not shown) attach to the front of the casing at final assembly. Courtesy AC Compressor Corp.

Figure 1.10: Air in a turbofan jet engine (axial flow turbine) is compressed by the rotating blades at the left. Combustion occurs in the central portion, and part of the energy drives the turbine blades at the right. The remaining energy provides thrust by forcing gas rearward at high velocity. The turbine powers both the compressor and the fan. Courtesy Pratt & Whitney.

Curved motion, viscosity, boundary layers, secondary flows, lift, and drag are design features common to most rotating machinery. The relevant fluid may only be air in contact with the spinning armature of an electric motor, representing an energy loss, or it may be the fluid in a rotary pump. The centrifugal pump impeller and housing shown in Figure 1.9 draws in nonrotating fluid along its axis, spins it at high speed, and uses centrifugal force to create fluid pressure and flow velocity. Within the pump the fluid moves in nearly spiral paths as it moves from the inlet to the outlet.

An axial flow turbine has alternate rows of stationary and rotating vanes and can be used either as a motor or a pump (compressor). The turbofan jet engine in Figure 1.10 is one type of axial flow turbine. It draws in and compresses air in the inlet compressor section, continuously injects and bums fuel in the central combustion section, and uses a portion of the energy of the exhaust to power the rear portion (turbine) of the jet engine. The turbine portion drives the inlet compressor section and fan. The fan helps provide propulsion. The remainder of the energy is used to eject the exhaust gases at high velocity to give additional forward propulsion. Fluid motion along curved paths and fluid vorticity have both positive and negative design implications in these applications.

Important applications of rotating fluids occur in many vehicles that contain liquids, often as fuel. In some cases, the vehicle is massive enough, relative to the quantity of fuel, that motion of the vehicle can be prescribed independent of the fluid. In other cases, e.g., an oil tanker or a space vehicle, the liquid mass may exceed the vehicle structural mass. On take-off, a space vehicle may be over 90% liquid fuel by mass, and communication satellites, upon being placed in orbit, typically are over 50% liquid by mass. Space vehicles present unusual problems because their motions are unconstrained by land, water, or air.

Figure 1.11 shows a communication satellite in its orbit configuration. It was manufactured by Ford Aerospace for the India Space Agency and was placed in orbit by a Delta rocket. During the final orbit insertion maneuver the rocket third stage (PAM) and the satellite were spun up to achieve gyroscopic attitude stability. At this point approximately 60% of the satellite's total mass was liquid fuel. Figure 1.12 shows a communication satellite manufactured by ERNO Raumfahrttechnik for Telecom (Germany). It also was placed in orbit by a Delta rocket and is shown here in launch configuration fastened on top of its PAM (payload assist module). Phenomena similar to, but more complex than, that shown in Figure 1.4 occur inside the spinning fuel tanks and have the potential for destabilizing the attitude (orientation) of the satellite. Satellites have become inoperative because of an inability to predict these rotating fluid-structure interactions correctly. These satellites were correctly analyzed and designed, and performed perfectly. Figure 1.13 is a NASA photograph of astronauts manually reorienting a satellite relative to their space shuttle. Continued space exploration will present many unusual situations where an ability to predict rotational motions of vehicles containing large quantities of liquids will be essential for success.

Rotating geophysical fluids are usually related to and dependent upon the earth's rotation. For example, the earth has a liquid core whose radius is slightly more than half the earth's outside radius; its mass is approximately one-third the earth's total mass. It is assumed to be molten iron with small amounts of other elements. This provides a situation very similar to that of liquid fuel in a spinning communication satellite. Part of the complexity of both applications is that neither the earth nor a satellite spins about a fixed axis. The spin axis of each wobbles (precesses) and, in so doing, continuously changes direction. Under this condition the internal liquid is continuously being perturbed.

Figure 1.14 shows a laboratory experiment used to analyze liquid motions in a container that spins and precesses at various rates. The transparent tank shown in the photograph has the same nonspherical shape as the earth's mantle-core boundary. The angle between spin and precession shown in the photograph (23.5˚) matches the earth's forced precession angle. While many variables can be matched during experiments, not all can. Dimensionless ratios and scaling techniques can often resolve such experimental difficulties. Even if the earth's axis did not wobble, the earth's spin rate would restrict thermal convection, turbulence, and internal waves in the liquid core to prescribed patterns and magnitudes.

Figure 1.11: The successful orbit insertion and operation of this communication satellite was the result of careful analysis, experimentation, and design on many levels. Rotating flow analyses were important because the satellite contained large amounts of liquid fuels. Courtesy Department of Space, Government of India.

Figure 1.12: This communication satellite is shown in its launch configuration attached to its third-stage rocket. This satellite and the satellite in Figure 1.11 were in this configuration when spinning. Courtesy ERNO Raumfahrttechnik, Bremen, Germany, and McDonnell Douglas.

Figure 1.13: In this photo a satellite is maneuvered into position by astronauts on a space shuttle. Enclosed liquids greatly complicate maneuvers in space that might otherwise seem rather simple. Photo courtesy NASA.

Figure 1.14: The earth is filled out to half its radius with molten iron and minerals. This transparent tank, filled with liquid, can be used to model both the earth's interior and liquid fuels in communication satellites that spin and wobble. Photo by Vanyo.

Rotating fluid theory historically developed during attempts at understanding and predicting fluid flow phenomena on the earth's surface, especially large-scale atmospheric and oceanic flows. Figure 1.15 shows the earth viewed from space. The continent of Africa fills the upper-left quadrant of the photograph. Medium (meso-) scale cloud patterns are obvious. Major components of large-scale flows do not vary day or night, summer or winter, but are not easily made visible. These long-term flow components are caused by the average flow of heat from the earth's hot equatorial region to the cold polar regions. The earth's rotation causes these major north-south atmospheric flows to deflect east or west, as viewed from the earth's surface, to produce the east-west trade winds. These trade winds were known and used by early mariners.

Figure 1.15: Some features of earth atmospheric flow patterns are made visible by clouds in this photograph from Apollo 17. Solar heat provides the necessary energy, but Coriolis phenomena due to the earth's rotation control the flow patterns. Photo courtesy NASA.

Surface winds blow across the broad expanses of the oceans causing surface ocean currents 100 or more meters deep. These currents measure up to thousands of kilometers wide and typically move at speeds of a few kilometers per day. A few, such as the narrow, deep Gulf Stream and the Kuroshiro (Japanese) Current, move at speeds up to 120 km/day. Shear stresses caused by the wind and Coriolis phenomena caused by the earth's rotation induce rotational patterns in each of the five major oceans, clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. These rotating patterns are called gyres. The motion can be seen in infrared satellite photographs that distinguish water temperatures and by measurements from research ships. Figure 1.16 shows the warm North Equatorial Current moving westward across the Atlantic Ocean, then bending north to become the Gulf Stream, completing its circle (gyre) as a flow east to England and then south toward northern Africa. Figure 1.16 also shows vortex motions produced along the boundaries of the Gulf Stream as it moves north and east.

Figure 1.16: Oceanic surface currents are driven by the wind but controlled by Coriolis phenomena and continental boundaries. The net effect is to cause oceans in the Northern Hemisphere to rotate clockwise and those in the Southern Hemisphere to rotate counterclockwise. The Gulf Stream is the intensified western edge of the North Atlantic gyre shown here with typical vortex rings. Reproduced with permission from Munk (1987).

Some atmospheric motions are not caused directly by thermal convection or earth rotation but rather by vorticity produced in regions of wind shear. All combinations of effects are possible. Small whirlwinds behind the edges of buildings are produced randomly by wind gusts. Large-scale winds associated with movement of cold or warm fronts produce flow patterns that combine earth rotation and shear vorticity effects. Some of the more spectacular are the large-scale (up to 1000 km) dust storms such as those of central Asia and northern Africa. The major flow is produced by energy extracted from the earth's overall atmospheric motion; however, its destructive ability is intensified by wind shear vorticity.

Figure 1.17: Air over warm oceans rises, aided by the latent heat of evaporation of rain, and draws in air over a 1000 km region. Earth vorticity (rotation) of the atmosphere is concentrated, here producing hurricane Gilbert as viewed from a NOAA satellite. Courtesy Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State University.

Tropical cyclones (called hurricanes in the Atlantic and typhoons in the Pacific) and tornadoes have easily earned the classification intense atmospheric vortices. However, except that they both consist of air rotating at very high speed and are extremely destructive, they have little in common. Note in Figure 1.15 the immature typhoon (hurricane) forming over the ocean between India and Africa. Figure 1.17 shows hurricane Gilbert (September 1988) viewed from a NOAA weather satellite. The hurricane covers the entire Caribbean from Florida in the upper right to the Yucatan Peninsula in the lower left. The major diameter of this hurricane is greater than 1000 km, and its eye is 40 km in diameter. Gilbert had 145 mph winds and the lowest central pressure ever recorded for a hurricane. A tornado is rarely over a few hundred meters in diameter and would be too small to be visible in this hurricane photograph.

Figure 1.18: Tornadoes are typically 10 to 100 m in diameter with rotating winds sometimes estimated at near the speed of sound. This tornado formed in 1979 near Seymour, TX. Courtesy National Severe Storms Laboratory.

A hurricane is caused by large-scale thermal convection over a region of warm (>26.5˚C) ocean water. Convection is augmented by release of latent heat during condensation of rain. The hurricane's angular momentum (rotation) is extracted directly from the earth's angular momentum (rotation) during convergence of air toward its low-pressure center. Because its rotation is extracted directly from the earth's rotation, its direction of rotation agrees with the earth's, counterclockwise viewed from the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise viewed from the Southern Hemisphere. Tangential wind speeds near the center often reach 200 to 300 km/hr. When a tropical cyclone (hurricane) passes over land or cool water, it loses its energy source and soon dissipates.

Tornadoes receive their energy and their angular momentum from energy and vorticity (rotation) produced in and stored by other phenomena, e.g., hurricanes, squall lines, thunderstorms, or even volcanoes or fire storms. Tornadoes usually descend from overhead clouds as in the Figure 1.18 photograph of a massive tornado that occurred near Seymour, TX, on April 10, 1979. When the vortex funnel reaches the earth's surface, it usually accumulates water, dust, or debris. Over land it is called a tornado. When over water it is called a waterspout as in Figure 1.19. The waterspout shown here was observed by the author at Santa Barbara on October 1, 1976. It started as a low (300 m high), thick (75 m diameter) column in the ocean about 500 m from the University of California, Santa Barbara campus, and then lengthened as it moved east about 10 km to where it was photographed. It soon dissipated. Tornadoes (waterspouts) can rotate in either direction and tend to be brief in duration. Some evidence suggests maximum tangential winds near supersonic velocities, but measured velocities are less than 400 km/hr.

Figure 1.19: Waterspouts are tornadoes that occur over water. This photograph by D. Meaney shows a rare waterspout off the coast of Santa Barbara, CA, in 1976. Dennis Meaney 1976.

The figures are explained in more detail in Parts II and III. Mathematical models are included in most cases along with experimental results. References to more advanced and more specialized texts and to the professional literature are included for those wishing to explore subjects more thoroughly.

Chapter 2

Mass and Momentum Conservation

2.1   Eulerian Mechanics

A principal task of fluid mechanics is the analysis and understanding of distortion. The ability of a fluid element to distort without limit raises the question of identity, How can we identify and monitor the motion of a specific quantity of fluid? Nearly a century after Newton derived F = mA, Euler resolved the question by adopting a formulation for the kinematics of fluids that is different than Newton's approach. It was yet another century before Navier and Stokes resolved the question of internal fluid forces, including viscosity, and completed the derivation of the fluid equivalent of Newton's F = mA.

Newton's concept of identifying specific particles or objects and following their motion through space was formalized by Lagrange and is often referred to as the Lagrangian formulation of mechanics. Euler developed a different approach to fluid mechanics that identifies fixed locations in space and analyzes the motion of whatever fluid is in that location at that time. Where the fluid comes from or goes to is a secondary matter.

Figures 2.1a and 2.1b compare the Eulerian and Lagrangian formulations. Figure 2.1a shows the Lagrangian formulation for particle mechanics. Position R of the particle is the principal variable. Velocity is obtained as the first derivative of R and acceleration as the second derivative. The coordinates x and y define R of the particle so dx/dt = u and dy/dt = v. Figure 2.1b illustrates the Eulerian formulation. Here x and y are the locations of Eulerian grid points. The Eulerian grid is fixed so dx/dt = 0 and dy/dt = 0. Velocity or momentum become the principal variables.

2.2   Mass Conservation

The principle of conservation of mass in particle dynamics is mathematically expressed as m = constant, or m = m(t). Newton's law of motion, F = d(mV)/dt, becomes

Figure 2.1: Lagrangian vs. Eulerian formulations of mechanics, (a) In Lagrangian mechanics attention is placed on the trajectory Rp(t) of a specific mass element (P). Here (x, y) are coordinates of P, and dR/dt = V. (b) In Eulerian mechanics attention is placed on motion of fluid V(t) past fixed grid locations RG. Here the (x, y) grid locations (G) are fixed, and dRG/dt = 0.

for m = constant, or

for m = m(t). Conservation of mass in the analysis of fluids is defined using the Eulerian formulation by the simple statement, The net change of mass within a given volume is equal to the difference between the quantity of mass entering the volume and that leaving.

). The mass conservation statement here is expressed quantitatively as

is equal to the net flux of mass through the control volume surface ∫S ρ(V • dS) The term (V • dS) quantifies the volumetric flow rate integrated (or summed) over the relevant portions of the surface, and p (mass per unit volume) is the fluid property transferred across the surface.

Figure 2.2: Conservation of mass in Eulerian mechanics. (a) Mass flow through a fixed volume enclosed by the walls of a pipe and control surfaces A1, A2, and A3. (b) Mass flow through an infinitesimal volume .

. The mass flow rate through the left wall using (2.1) is [ρ(u × area)]. The mass flow rate difference between the left wall and the right wall per unit time is Δ(ρu)/Δx or in differential form ∂(ρu)/∂x. Summation of the net flows