Ice Microdynamics

ICE MICRODYNAMICS

PAO K. WANG

Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

PREFACE

Chapter 1: ICE PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

1.1 Ice Particles—A Personal Perspective

1.2 Some Historical Notes on the Knowledge of Ice Particles in Ancient China

1.3 A Brief Summary of the Following Sections

Chapter 2: MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF ICE PARTICLE SIZE AND SHAPE

2.1 Size Distribution versus Size–Shape Distributions

2.2 Mathematical Expression Describing the Two-Dimensional Shapes of Hexagonal Ice Crystals

2.3 Approximating an Exact Hexagonal Plate

2.4 Two-Dimensional Characterization of an Ensemble of Planar Hexagonal Ice Crystals

2.5 Mathematical Expressions Describing the Three-Dimensional Shapes of Ice Crystals

2.6 Mathematical Expressions Describing Conical Hydrometeors

Chapter 3: HYDRODYNAMICS OF SMALL ICE PARTICLES

3.1 Fall Attitude of Ice Particles

3.2 Review of Previous Studies

3.3 The Physics and Mathematics of Unsteady Flow Fields around Nonspherical Ice Particles

3.4 The Numerical Scheme

3.5 Results and Discussion

Chapter 4: VAPOR DIFFUSION, VENTILATION, AND COLLISIONAL EFFICIENCIES OF ICE CRYSTALS

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Vapor Diffusion Fields around a Stationary Columnar Ice Crystal

4.3 Ventilation Coefficients for Falling Ice Crystals

4.4 Collision Efficiencies of Ice Crystals Collecting Supercooled Droplets

Chapter 5: SCAVENGING AND TRANSPORTATION OF AEROSOL PARTICLES BY ICE CRYSTALS IN CLOUDS

5.1 Importance of Aerosol Particles in the Atmosphere

5.2 Physical Mechanisms of Precipitation Scavenging

5.3 The Theoretical Problem of Ice Scavenging of Aerosol Particles

5.4 Physics and Mathematics of the Models

5.5 Efficiencies of Ice Plates Collecting Aerosol Particles

5.6 Efficiencies of Columnar Ice Crystals Collecting Aerosol Particles

5.7 Comparison of Collection Efficiency of Aerosol Particles by Individual Water Droplets, Ice Plates, and Ice Columns

5.8 Experimental Verification of Collection Efficiencies

Chapter 6: EVOLUTION OF ICE CRYSTALS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIRRUS CLOUDS

6.1 Cirrus Clouds, Radiation, and Climate

6.2 Physics of the Model

6.3 Design of the Present Simulation Study

6.4 Numerics of the Model

6.5 Results and Discussion

Appendix A: AREA OF AN AXIAL CROSS SECTION

Appendix B: CALCULATION OF VOLUME

Appendix C: CLOSED-FORM EXPRESSION OF THE CONICAL VOLUME

REFERENCES

INDEX

Copyright

This volume is a paperback reprint of Pao K. Wang’s article that appears in Volume 45 of Advances in Geophysics (R. Dmowska and B. Saltzman, eds.).

Copyright © 2002, Elsevier Science (USA).

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Dedication

To Professor Dr. Hans R. Pruppacher

PREFACE

I spent a semester of sabbatical leave at MIT in the fall of 1997. On my way back to Madison, I visited Yale University’s Professor Barry Saltzman, who encouraged me to summarize my research about ice particles in clouds into a monograph. This volume is the result of just such an endeavor.

Ice particles are present both in the lower atmosphere (during hailstorms and snowstorms for example) and in upper atmospheric clouds such as cirrus and the upper parts of cumulonimbus. Earlier studies of clouds strongly emphasized the physics of liquid processes, as ice processes were then not very well understood. On the observational side, the difficulty lay in accessing the higher parts of clouds where ice particles are located. On the theoretical side, the main difficulty was that attending the more complex ice particle shapes. My own research in Wisconsin in the past two decades has focused largely on theoretical studies of ice particles in clouds, especially the mathematical description of their shapes, their diffusional and collisional growth rates, and their influence on cloud development. All these seem to be related, in one way or another, to their hydrodynamic properties. That is why I use the word microdynamics in the title to distinguish from the usual word microphysics, which tends to cover all microscale cloud processes.

This volume mainly consists of my research works on this subject, most of which have been published in referred scientific journals; however, some unpublished results are also included. These latter include some results that are too detailed for journal articles, insights that occurred to me after a paper was published, and excerpts from some of my students’ Ph.D theses. Formal journal articles are being prepared to disseminate these theses excerpts. This monograph is not intended to be a comprehensive treatment of ice microdynamics.

The historical notes in Section 1 are not formally related to microdynamics; rather, they represent a passage of human discovery of ice crystal behavior in the atmosphere. Thus I feel it is of some interest and not totally out of place here. Joseph Needham had discussed some of them, but others—from my own reading—are probably presented in English for the first time. The second half of Section 1 briefly introduces the later sections. Sections 2 through 4 are concerned with the microdynamic behavior of individual ice particles—their size and shape, their hydrodynamics, the diffusion of vapor around them, and their collision efficiencies with small droplets. Section 5 focuses on the impact of ice microdynamics on the scavenging of aerosol particles, a process that may play an important role in the upper tropospheric chemical transport. Finally, the subject of Section 6 is cirrus cloud development, where ice microdynamics assumes a central role. A cirrus model equipped with cloud microphysics and radiation packages is used for the cirrus study.

I am grateful to the late Professor Barry Saltzman for his kind invitation, which made this monograph possible, and for the hospitality that he (and Professor Ron Smith) gave me during my short stay in New Haven. (Barry passed away on February 2, 2001.) I am indebted to my colleague Dr. Bob Schlesinger, who tirelessly read the manuscript and made innumerable corrections and comments that resulted in great improvements. (And, from what Bob has done, I finally understand what the word meticulous really means!) Of course, I bear the responsibility for any mistakes in this volume. I would also like to acknowledge my current and former students who have dedicated much of their youthful energy into these research. I also thank two long-time friends, Dr. Andy Heymsfield and Professor Ken Beard, for many discussions about my research and helpful comments on the manuscript.

The results presented here were achieved mainly under the generous support of research grants from National Science Foundation. I especially acknowledge Drs. Ron Taylor and Rod Rogers, the respective former and current Directors of the Physical Meteorology Program, and Dr. Steve Nelson, Director of the Mesoscale Dynamic Meteorology Program. All have been very supportive of my research in ice processes in clouds. I also acknowledge the support of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for my work in the aerosol scavenging studies. The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation of Germany also provided me with a generous Humboldt Award that allowed me to perform part of my research in Germany. The American Meteorological Society has the most generous policy of allowing researchers to use materials from its journals for their publications. Dr. Ed Eloranta also kindly provided me a beautiful lidar picture of cirrus clouds. I also thank Ms. Erin Lunders, who patiently typed the first draft, and Dr. Frank Cynar and Mr. Paul Gottehrer of Academic Press, who provided much assistance that shaped the final form of this monograph. Ms. Kelly Ricci carefully typed the final draft.

Finally, I dedicate this volume to Professor Hans R. Pruppacher, from whom I learned my basic lessons on ice physics in clouds and whose monumental book Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation is a source that never fails to inspire me when I need some cloud information. Hans is a model scientist, a teacher, and a friend. He and his wife, Monica, introduced our family to the charm of Europe and gave us the most pleasant experience during our stay in Mainz, Germany, in 1993.

Pao K. Wang,     Madison, Wisconsin

1

ICE PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

1.1 Ice Particles—A Personal Perspective

Except for those who live in the polar regions, most people associate ice particles only with winter and cold climates. The reality is that ice particles are more ubiquitous than they realize. Even in the tropics in summer, ice particles may roam in the skies. Some of them may be small ice crystals in cirrus clouds, sometimes too thin to be visualized. Others may be snow crystals, graupel, and hailstones in vigorously developing cumulonimbus clouds. The only reason that common tropical dwellers do not see ice particles (unless they live on or near high mountains) is that they melt completely when they fall through the very warm air in the lower troposphere there. Even the upper parts of tropical storms—hurricanes (typhoons)—contain many ice particles.

Dwellers in middle and high latitudes are, of course, more familiar with ice particles, mostly as snow in winter but occasionally as hail in severe thunderstorms in summer. Here the air below the cloud base is sometimes cold and dry enough to allow hailstones to survive to the ground, causing great grief to farmers whose fruits or other crops may be badly damaged. There are other forms of ice particles as well, such as the frost on the grass in a cold morning in the fall and the menacing freezing rain in the early winter. They are atmospheric ice particles in a sense because their origins are in the atmosphere.

The Chinese ideograms representing ice and snow have been in existence for at least 3000 years. The earliest existing records are those engraved on the oracle bones of the Shang Dynasty (ca. 1000 B.C.). Aside from their usual usage in weather, they are often used to describe the color white, for they are probably the whitest things one can see in nature. In Chuang-Tzu, a book attributed to (and possibly written, at least partially, by) the great philosopher Chuang Chou (ca. 4th century B.C.), a passage reads:

In the Mt. Miao-Gu-Ye there lives a goddess whose flesh and skin are as white as ice and snow and who looks like a graceful and beautiful virgin.

So it appears that Snow White is not necessarily just a Western stereotypical beauty.

The author was born and grew up in Taiwan, a tropical country where natural ice particles exist only in high mountains (according to some statistics, some 60 peaks there are taller than 10,000 feet!). Until about 20 years ago these high mountains were not readily accessible to the public (except for those diehard mountain climbers, of course). As a result, most people living in Taiwan have never seen snow, even though the usage of snow is very common in the language. When I was a high school student, I hiked in high mountains in wintertime and surely saw ice packed by the roadside, but I never saw actual snowfall. I remember that one year a little flurry occurred in Chi-Sin-Shan [Seven Star Mountain], a mountainous area close to Taipei. After the news was reported in the media, thousands of people jammed the highway, racing to the area to see the snow. According to one of my friends who went to see it, the snows look like a layer of thin flour spreading on grass. Years later when I came to Madison, Wisconsin and was wading one winter morning in knee-high snow after a major blizzard, I couldn+t help but burst into a big fit of laughter recalling the snow flours in Taipei.

The most impressive aspect of an ice crystal is its extremely elegant geometric design. For a layman knowing little about crystallography, it is hard to believe that something produced by natural processes can be so beautiful, intricate, and apparently made to great precision. Who is not impressed when looking at the album of snow crystal pictures photographed by that venerated Vermont farmer Bentley (Bentley and Humphreys, 1931)? The one that strikes me most is the picture of a capped ice column that looks like a perfectly made pillar, complete with graceful engravings, taken from an ancient Greek temple. Not only are they beautiful and elegant, but the designs are so complex and detailed that one gets an impression, as an old saying has it, that no two snowflakes are exactly alike. Even if they look the same on the surface, there must be some subtle differences in details. Thus came an interesting encounter between the news media and me. One day a reporter from a major local newspaper called me up wanting me to verify whether it is true that no two snowflakes are exactly alike. I wanted to be as precise as possible and replied, It depends how detailed you really want to get. Two simple hexagonal ice plates without any visible internal designs may look exactly alike. But if you go down to the molecular level, you are bound to find some differences. The next day the news article read, Wang confirms that it is indeed true that no two snowflakes look exactly alike. So much for my scientific answer!

In fact, as reported in Science Now (March 1995), the notion that no two snow crystals are identical was disproved in 1988 when National Center for Atmospheric Research scientist Nancy Knight, who was examining samples collected at 6 km over Wisconsin for a cloud-climatology study, found two thick hollow columnar crystals that apparently were Siamese twins.

1.2 Some Historical Notes on the Knowledge of Ice Particles in Ancient China

It is of some interest to review the history of our scientific knowledge about ice particles. Chapter 1 of the book by Pruppacher and Klett (1997) has provided such a review for Western history. However, relatively few such works have been done for the case of China, where there is also a long tradition of meteorological observations. An exhaustive review of the observations would not be possible at present, but in the following few paragraphs I would just like to mention a few interesting observations about ice particles in ancient China.

1.2.1 The Hexagonal Shape of Snowflakes

According to Needham and Lu (1961), the first European to write something about the shape of snow crystals was Albertus Magnus (ca. A.D. 1260). He thought that snow crystals were star-shaped, but he also seemed to believe that such regular forms of snow fell only in February and March. In 1555, the Scandinavian bishop Olaus Magnus wrote that the snow crystals could have shapes like crescents, arrows, nail-shaped objects, bells, and one like a human hand. It was only in 1591 that Thomas Hariot correctly recognized the hexagonal nature of snow crystals (unpublished private manuscript). It is therefore quite an impressive feat that in 135 B.C., Han Ying, a Chinese scholar of the Western Han Dynasty, wrote in his book Han Shih Wai Chuan [Moral Discourses Illustrating the Han Text of the Book of Odes] about the hexagonal shape of snow crystals. The passage reads as follows:

Flowers of plants and trees are generally five-pointed, but those of snow, which are called ying, are always six-pointed.

Han did not say anything about how the observations were made, but Needham and Lu wondered whether some kind of magnifying lens was used because this kind of discovery would imply fine-scale examination. Ever since Han’s work was published, the six-sided nature of snowflakes has been a household term for Chinese scholars, and numerous writings, especially poems, allude to this fact. Needham and Lu mentioned one poem written by Hsiao Tung, a sixth-century prince of Liang Empire:

The ruddy clouds float in the four quarters of the cerulean sky.

And the white snowflakes show forth their six-petaled flowers.

When I was about five years old, my father showed me a popular textbook used by children of ancient China (up to the beginning of 20th century) when they first became students. In this book, You Hsue Gu Shih Chong Ling [A Fine Jade Forest of Stories for Beginning Students], there is a sentence of a verse saying, The flying of snow flakes, which are six-pointed, is an auspicious omen for good harvest. Snow is considered auspicious because it is believed to kill insect eggs/larvae, but it is also clear that the hexagonal shape of snow crystals is common knowledge among the masses.

Although there was no crystallographic explanation of the hexagonal nature of the crystals, the Chinese attempted to explain this six-sidedness by the explain-all principle of the Yin-Yang and Wu-Shing [Five Elements] theory. It was believed that these were the two opposing forces operating in the whole universe, and everything in this world is produced from their interaction. Yang is said to relate to male or positive aspects, whereas yin is said to relate to female or negative aspects of nature. Curiously, yang is also associated with odd numbers, whereas yin is associated with even numbers. In principle, everything in the universe can be categorized as belonging to either yin or yang. Not surprisingly, water is considered to possess the quality of yin, a female attribute, and hence is associated with an even number. For an unexplained reason, the number six was assigned to the element Water in the ancient time. So ancient Chinese scholars took this semimagic principle to explain why snow crystals are six-pointed. An example was given by the great 12th-century Chinese medieval philosopher Chu Hsi, who wrote, Six generated from Earth is the perfect number of Water, so as snow is water condensed into crystal flowers, these are always six-pointed. In another writing in Chu Tzu Chuan Shu [Collected Writings of Master Chu], Chi Hsi also tried to explain the formation of snow in a slightly more detailed way:

The reason why flowers or crystals of snow are six-pointed is because they are only sleet split open by violent winds they must be six-pointed. Just so, if you throw a lump of mud on the ground, it splashes into radiating angular petal-like form. Now six is a yin number, and tai-yin-hsuan-jing-shi (selenite crystal) is also six-pointed, with sharp prismatic angular edges. Everything is due to the number inherent in Nature.

The ancient Chinese seemed content to accept that the six-pointed shape of snow is a natural fact, and no further study on its hexagonal nature was done.

1.2.2 Protection of Crops from the Cold

One concern about ice particles is the possibility that they may cause damage because of their coldness. This is especially relevant for the case of frost, a form of ice particles, which may severely damage fruits or other crops. Since China has been mainly an agricultural country through most of its history and can be cold, it is only natural to expect that the Chinese have paid some attention to the protection of crops from cold damage. In a Wei Dynasty agricultural book, Chi Min Yao Shu [Essential Technologies for Common People], Jia Si-shie (early 6th century), we find two accounts concerning the protection of crops from frost damage:

(1) In the book written by Fan Sheng-Chih [A.D. 1st century] it says, "In planting rice, it is common to watch during the midnights