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    IP Addressing and Subnetting INC IPV6: Including IPv6
    IP Addressing and Subnetting INC IPV6: Including IPv6
    IP Addressing and Subnetting INC IPV6: Including IPv6
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    IP Addressing and Subnetting INC IPV6: Including IPv6

    By Syngress

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    Internetworking Protocol (IP) addresses are the unique numeric identifiers required of every device connected to the Internet. They allow for the precise routing of data across very complex worldwide internetworks. The rules for their format and use are governed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) of the The Internet SOCiety (ISOC). In response to the exponential increase in demand for new IP addresses, the IETF has finalized its revision on IP addressing as IP Version 6, also know as IPng (ng = Next Generation). Key hardware vendors such as Cisco and major Internet Service Providers such as America Online have already announced plans to migrate to IP Version 6.
    IP address allocation within an organization requires a lot of long-term planning. This timely publication addresses the administrator and engineer's need to know how IP 6 impacts their enterprise networks.
    • Easy-to-read, light technical approach to cellular technology
    • Ideal for companies planning a phased migration from IP 4 to IP 6
    • Timely publication: The IETF standard was finalized in early 1999 and will begin to be implemented in late 1999/2000. The current IP Version 4 address set will be exhausted by 2003
    • The book focuses on planning and configuring networks and devices for IP 6. Specifically, it will cover how to: Increase the IP address size from 32 bits to 128 bits; Support more levels of addressing hierarchy; Support an increased number of addressable nodes; Support simpler auto-configuration of addresses; Improve the scalability of multicast routing by adding a "scope" field to multicast addresses; Use a new "anycast address" to send a packet to any one of a group of nodes
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherElsevier Science
    Release dateJan 28, 2000
    ISBN9780080535227
    IP Addressing and Subnetting INC IPV6: Including IPv6

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      IP Addressing and Subnetting INC IPV6 - Syngress

      IP ADDRESSING AND SUBNETTING INCLUDING IPv6

      J.D. Wegner

      Robert Rockell

      Table of Contents

      Cover image

      Title page

      solutions@syngress.com

      Copyright

      Acknowledgments

      Contributors

      Preface

      Editor’s Acknowledgments

      Chapter 1: Addressing and Subnetting Basics

      IP Address Basics

      Classful Addressing–Structure and Size of Each Type

      What Is a Network?

      Class A

      Class B

      Class C

      Address Assignments

      Multihomed Devices

      Multinetting—Multiple Addresses per Interface

      Examples

      Purpose of Subnetting

      The Basic Fixed-Length Mask

      What the Mask Does

      Components of a Mask

      Binary Determination of Mask Values

      Decimal Equivalent Mask Values

      Creating Masks for Various Networking Problems

      Addresses and Mask Interaction

      Reserved and Restricted Addresses

      Determining the Range of Addresses within Subnets

      Determining Subnet Addresses Given a Single Address and Mask

      Interpreting Masks

      Reserved Addresses

      Summary

      FAQs

      Chapter 2: Creating an Addressing Plan for Fixed-Length Mask Networks

      Introduction

      Determine Addressing Requirements

      How Many Subnets Do You Need?

      How Many IP Addresses Are Needed in Each Subnet?

      What about Growth?

      Choose the Proper Mask

      Consult the Tables

      Obtain IP Addresses

      From Your Organization’s Network Manager

      From Your ISP

      From Your Internet Registry

      Calculate Ranges of IP Addresses for Each Subnet

      Worksheets

      Subnet Calculators

      Allocate Addresses to Devices

      Assigning Subnets

      Assigning Device Addresses

      Document Your Work

      Keeping Track of What You’ve Done

      Paper

      Spreadsheets

      Databases

      In Any Case

      Summary

      FAQs

      Exercises

      Answers

      Subnetting Tables

      Class B Subnetting Table

      Class C Subnetting Table

      Subnet Assignment Worksheet

      Chapter 3: Private Addressing and Subnetting Large Networks

      Introduction

      Strategies to Conserve Addresses

      CIDR

      VLSM

      Private Addresses

      Addressing Economics

      An Appeal

      Public vs Private Address Spaces

      Can I Pick My Own?

      RFC 1918—Private Network Addresses

      The Three-Address Blocks

      Considerations

      Which to Use When

      Strategy for Subnetting a Class A Private Network

      The Network

      The Strategy

      Address Assignment

      The Headquarters LANs

      The WAN Links from Headquarters to the Distribution Centers

      The Distribution Center LANs

      The WAN Links from the DC to the Stores

      The Store LANs

      Results

      Summary

      FAQs

      Exercises

      Answers

      Chapter 4: Network Address Translation

      Introduction

      Hiding Behind the Router/Firewall

      What Is NAT?

      How Does NAT Work?

      Network Address Translation (Static)

      How Does Static NAT Work?

      Double NAT

      Problems with Static NAT

      Configuration Examples

      Windows NT 2000

      Cisco IOS

      Linux IP Masquerade

      Network Address Translation (Dynamic)

      How Does Dynamic NAT Work?

      Problems with Dynamic NAT

      Configuration Examples

      Port Address Translation (PAT)

      How Does PAT Work?

      Problems with PAT

      Configuration Examples

      Windows NT 2000

      Linux IP Masquerade

      Cisco IOS

      What Are the Advantages?

      What Are the Performance Issues?

      Proxies and Firewall Capabilities

      Packet Filters

      Proxies

      Stateful Packet Filters

      Stateful Packet Filter with Rewrite

      Why a Proxy Server Is Really Not a NAT

      Shortcomings of SPF

      Summary

      FAQs

      References & Resources

      RFCs

      IP Masquerade/Linux

      Cisco

      Windows

      NAT Whitepapers

      Firewalls

      Chapter 5: Variable-Length Subnet Masking

      Introduction

      Why Are Variable-Length Masks Necessary?

      Right-sizing Your Subnets

      More Addresses or More Useful Addresses?

      The Importance of Proper Planning

      Creating and Managing Variable-Length Subnets

      Analyze Subnet Needs

      Enumerate Each Subnet and Number of Required Nodes

      Determine Which Mask to Use in Each Subnet

      Allocate Addresses Based on Need For Each Subnet

      Routing Protocols and VLSM

      Class C VLSM Problem

      Completing the Class C Problem

      Template-based Address Assignment

      Summary

      FAQs

      Chapter 6: Routing Issues

      Introduction

      Classless Interdomain Routing

      From Millions to Thousands of Networks

      ISP Address Assignment

      Using CIDR Addresses Inside Your Network

      Contiguous Subnets

      IGRP

      EIGRP

      EIGRP Concepts

      RIP-1 Requirements

      Comparison with IGRP

      Routing Update Impact

      RIP-2 Requirements

      OSPF

      Configuring OSPF

      Routing Update Impact

      OSPF Implementation Recommendations

      BGP Requirements

      IBGP and EBGP Requirements

      Loopback Interfaces

      Summary

      FAQs

      Chapter 7: Automatic Assignment of IP Addresses with BOOTP and DHCP Objectives

      Introduction

      The Role of Dynamic Address Assignment

      A Brief History

      Address Management with These Tools

      Field Descriptions and Comments

      OP

      HTYPE

      HLEN

      HOPS

      XID

      SECS

      FLAG

      CIADDR

      YIADDR

      SIADDR

      GIADDR

      CHADDR

      SNAME

      FILE

      VEND/OPTION

      BOOTP Process Details

      Field Values in the BOOTREPLY packet

      The BOOTP Server Database

      How Does DHCP Work?

      DHCP Process Overview

      DHCP Process Details

      DHCP-Specific Options

      Interoperation between DHCP and BOOTP

      DHCP Address Scopes

      Comparing BOOTP and DHCP

      How BOOTP Works

      BOOTP Process Overview

      DHCP/BOOTP Options

      BOOTP Options from RFC 1497

      IP Layer Parameters per Host

      IP Layer Parameters per Interface

      Link Layer Parameters per Interface

      TCP Parameters

      Application and Service Parameters

      BOOTP, DHCP, and Routed Networks

      The BOOTP Relay Agent

      The Role of the GIADDR

      Other Fields Involved

      CHADDR, YIADDR, HTYPE, HLEN, FLAG

      BOOTP Implementation Checklist

      DHCP Implementation Checklist

      Summary

      FAQs

      Chapter 8: Multicast Addressing

      What Is Multicast?

      Mapping IP Multicast to the Link Layer

      Joining the Group

      IGMP

      Multicast Routing Protocols

      Mbone

      Multicast Addresses

      Transient and Permanent Addresses

      Generic Assignments

      IANA Assignments

      Scope of Multicast Addresses Using TTL

      Administrative Scopes

      IP Stacks and Multicast

      Why Multicast?

      Summary

      FAQ

      Chapter 9: IPv6 Addressing

      Introduction

      IPv6 Addressing Basics

      IPv6 Addressing Scheme Characteristics

      Version

      Traffic Class

      Flow Label

      Payload Length

      Next Header

      Hop-by-Hop Options Header

      More Bits!

      A More Flexible Hierarchical Organization of Addresses

      Aggregation Realized

      Minimizing the Size of Routing Tables

      Global Addresses for the Internet and Local Addresses for Intranet

      IPv6 Benefits

      Increased IP Address Size

      Increased Addressing Hierarchy Support

      Simplified Host Addressing

      Simpler Autoconfiguration of Addresses

      Improved Scalability of Multicast Routing

      The Anycast Address

      The Need for Further Development

      The Multihoming Problem

      The 6Bone

      Summary

      FAQ

      Chapter 10: The IPv6 Header

      Introduction

      Expanded Addressing

      Simplified Header

      Improved Support for Extension and Option

      Flow and Flow Labeling

      Authentication and Privacy

      IPv6 Header

      IPv4 Header

      Extension Headers

      Hop-by-Hop Option Header

      Routing Header

      Fragment Header

      Authentication Header

      Encapsulating Security Payload

      Destination Options Header

      Upper-Layer Protocol Issues

      Summary

      FAQs

      Address Assignment

      Index

      Administering Active Directory

      solutions@syngress.com

      With over 1,000,000 copies of our MCSE, MCSD, CompTIA, and Cisco study guides in print, we have come to know many of you personally. By listening, we’ve learned what you like and dislike about typical computer books. The most requested item has been a web-based service that keeps you current on the topic of the book and related technologies. In response, we have created solutions@syngress.com, a service that includes the following features:

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      Once you’ve purchased this book, browse to

      www.syngress.com/solutions.

      To register, you will need to have the book handy to verify your purchase.

      Thank you for giving us the opportunity to serve you.

      Copyright

      Syngress Media, Inc., the author(s), and any person or firm involved in the writing, editing, or production (collectively Makers) of this book (the Work) do not guarantee or warrant the results to be obtained from the Work.

      There is no guarantee of any kind, expressed or implied, regarding the Work or its contents. The Work is sold AS IS and WITHOUT WARRANTY. You may have other legal rights, which vary from state to state.

      In no event will Makers be liable to you for damages, including any loss of profits, lost savings, or other incidental or consequential damages arising out from the Work or its contents. Because some states do not allow the exclusion or limitation of liability for consequential or incidental damages, the above limitation may not apply to you.

      You should always use reasonable case, including backup and other appropriate precautions, when working with computers, networks, data, and files.

      Syngress Media® and Syngress® are registered trademarks of Syngress Media, Inc. Career Advancement Through Skill Enhancement™ is a trademark of Syngress Media, Inc. Brands and product names mentioned in this book are trademarks or service marks of their respective companies.

      PUBLISHED BY

      Syngress Media, Inc.

      800 Hingham Street

      Rockland, MA 02370

      IP ADDRESSING AND SUBNETTING INCLUDING IPv6

      Copyright © 2000 by Syngress Media, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher, with the exception that the program listings may be entered, stored, and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication.

      Printed in the United States of America

      1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  0

      ISBN: 1-928994-01-6

      Acknowledgments

      We would like to acknowledge the following people for their kindness and support in making this book possible.

      Richard Kristof, Duncan Anderson, Jennifer Gould, Robert Woodruff, Kevin Murray, Dale Leatherwood, Shelley Everett, Laurie Hedrick, Rhonda Harmon, Lisa Lavallee, and Robert Sanregret of Global Knowledge, for their generous access to the IT industry’s best courses, instructors and training facilities.

      Ralph Troupe and the team at Rt. 1 Solutions for their invaluable insight into the challenges of designing, deploying and supporting world-class enterprise networks.

      Karen Cross, Kim Wylie, Harry Kirchner, John Hays, Bill Richter, Michael Ruggiero, Kevin Votel, Brittin Clark, Sarah Schaffer, Luke Kreinberg, Ellen Lafferty and Sarah MacLachlan of Publishers Group West for sharing their incredible marketing experience and expertise.

      Peter Hoenigsberg, Mary Ging, Caroline Hird, Simon Beale, Julia Oldknow, Kelly Burrows, Jonathan Bunkell, Catherine Anderson, Peet Kruger, Pia Rasmussen, Denelise L’Ecluse, Rosanna Ramacciotti, Marek Lewinson, Marc Appels, Paul Chrystal, Femi Otesanya, and Tracey Alcock of Harcourt International for making certain that our vision remains worldwide in scope.

      From Global Knowledge

      At Global Knowledge we strive to support the multiplicity of learning styles required by our students to achieve success as technical professionals. As the world’s largest IT training company, Global Knowledge is uniquely positioned to offer these books. The expertise gained each year from providing instructor-led training to hundreds of thousands of students worldwide has been captured in book form to enhance your learning experience. We hope that the quality of these books demonstrates our commitment to your lifelong learning success. Whether you choose to learn through the written word, computer based training, Web delivery, or instructor-led training, Global Knowledge is committed to providing you with the very best in each of these categories. For those of you who know Global Knowledge, or those of you who have just found us for the first time, our goal is to be your lifelong competency partner.

      Thank your for the opportunity to serve you. We look forward to serving your needs again in the future.

      Warmest regards,

      Duncan Anderson,     President and Chief Executive Officer, Global Knowledge

      Contributors

      Cameron Brandon (MCSE, CNE, CNA, MCSE+Internet, A+, Network+) works as a Network Engineer/Administrator in Portland, Oregon, and he specializes in Windows NT with BackOffice Integration. He helped in Intel Corporation’s large-scale migration at its Oregon facility to Windows NT. Cameron completed all of his certifications in five months, demonstrating that determination and a strong sense of direction are the key to success in one’s career.

      Ryan Russell (CCNA, CCNP) has been employed in the networking field for more than 10 years, including more than five years working with Cisco equipment. He has held IT positions ranging from help desk support to network design, providing him with a good perspective on the challenges that face a network manager. Recently, Ryan has been doing mostly information security work involving network security and firewalls. He has completed his CCNP and holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Computer Science.

      John Pherson (Microsoft MCSE and MCT, Novell Master CNE and Master CNI, and Certified Cisco Systems Instructor), has more than 18 years of technical-consulting and technical-management experience in the computer industry, specializing in networking technologies and operating systems. He also has a B.S. in Business Administration. John has been a member of several CompTIA (Computer Industry Technology Association) committees responsible for the growth and direction of the A+ Certification. He is also a contributing author to several books, including CCNA Study Guide (Osborne/McGraw-Hill, 1998) and the MCSE: Networking Essentials Study Guide (Osborne/McGraw-Hill, 1998). He is a member of American Mensa, Ltd. John is currently employed as an Instructional Consultant at Global Knowledge in Dallas, TX., and he also provides independent network consulting services.

      J.D. Wegner is a founder and director of The Empowerment Group, Inc. He has been working with computers for over 30 years. The last twelve of those, he has been involved with the design, installation and support of data networks. As an instructor and Course Director for Global Knowledge, he has presented topics ranging from Internetworking with TCP/IP to Web Security to IP Address Management to thousands of IT professionals in the U.S. and abroad. His clients include many of the Fortune 500 as well as several government agencies. He lives in Hickory, North Carolina with his wife, Laurie, and their two children, David and Sarah.

      Robert Rockell has been at Sprint Internet Services for the past 3 years. He currently works in the Operations Engineering department, where he and his group are responsible for top-level technical escalation of all Internet operation problems. In addition, Rob runs an IPv6 network with over 50 customers attached. If interested, you can join the 6Bone through Rob’s network by writing him at rrockell@sprint.net.

      Technical Editor

      Marc Blanchet (Marc.Blanchet@viagenie.qc.ca) is a network engineer working at Viagenie Inc. as a consultant in network security, network architectures and electronic commerce for companies, organisations and governments. He has been involved in TCP/IP since 1983. Marc wrote a book in French entitled TCP/IP Simplifü published at Iditions Logiques. At the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), he has been involved in many working groups, especially in IPv6 group, for which he wrote a few standard documents. One of those is about IPv6 address assignments. Marc is also an architect of the IPv6 CA*Net network and the 6tap IPv6 exchange. He is a regular speaker at conferences and gives courses about TCP/IP, Security, IPv6 and other related subjects.

      Preface

      Solutions in this chapter:

       Why this Book is Necessary

       Content of this Book

       Editor’s Acknowledgments

      Why this Book is Necessary

      Internet Protocol (IP), the network protocol of the Internet, is seen as the protocol for the convergence of telephony and data. Addressing is an important part of network engineering, either in the telephony world or the Internet world. One of the richest parts of IP is its addressing. Addressing has been so well designed in IP that the Internet has grown from three computers to hundreds of millions of computers, used in day-to-day work and fun, while remaining efficient.

      As you will see, this book discusses two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6. The current Internet is IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4), and the new Internet beginning to be deployed is based on IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6). This book describes addressing for both versions.

      Although many books cover TCP/IP, no book really goes into as much depth with all issues related to IP addressing as this one does. The intended audience of this comprehensive, intermediate-level book is someone with a technical or management background, who understands the basics of TCP/IP and wants a complete handbook related to addressing.

      Addressing is so important in any networking world that a misunderstanding can have important consequences. For example, a poorly designed addressing architecture for a large network can cause the organization to renumber the whole network, which can involve a long down-time as well as instability during the renumbering phase. This can cost a lot of money. But, at the same time, a good addressing architecture costs no money, just good planning and good understanding of the issues. This is one reason why this book exists.

      Content of this Book

      Chapter 1, Addressing and Subnetting Basics, discusses the IPv4 addressing architecture, which is the basis of this book. Classes and subnetting are key in the IPv4 design. Once you understand IP addresses, Chapter 2, Creating an Addressing Plan for Fixed-Length Mask Networks, tells you how to make an address plan for your network.

      If your network is not connected to the Internet, or if you use any kind of network address translation (NAT) device, you are going to use the private addresses reserved for that purpose. Private addresses are detailed in Chapter 3, Private Addressing and Subnetting Large Networks. If you use NAT, or simply want to know about it, then you should read Chapter 4, Network Address Translation, which is a comprehensive chapter on this technology.

      Although most networks can have a good address plan using standard subnetting techniques, some networks need variable-length subnet masks (VLSM), mostly because they are not balanced in the ratio of number of networks to number of hosts. VLSM is covered in Chapter 5, Variable-Length Subnet Masking.

      IP addressing is the basis of routing; Chapter 6, Routing Issues, deals with all the details of routing as they relate to addressing.

      IP requires more configuration in comparison with other LAN protocols. These issues have been resolved by BOOTP and DHCP, which are covered in Chapter 7, Automatic Assignment of IP Addresses with BOOTP and DCHP.

      Multicast provides a way to have one-to-many or many-to-many packets by giving the group of destination hosts a specific and special IP address in the class D range. This is a great and innovative way to use IP addressing, and it is covered in Chapter 8, Multicast Addressing.

      Since the growth rate of the Internet is phenomenal, engineers developed a new version of the IP protocol, called IPv6, which brings new schemes of addressing. With addressing, IPv6 enables autoconfiguration, renumbering, efficient routing on the backbone, etc. Chapters 9 and 10, IPv6 Addressing and The IPv6 Header, discuss IPv6 and its header and addressing structure in depth.

      The entire book covers the technology of IP addressing. In addition, you need to get a range of addresses for your network. The Annex discusses address assignments and registration.

      This book demonstrates that IP addressing is a very important feature of IP, which has evolved over time, as the Internet and other organizations needed change. The new version of IP, IPv6, continues to use addressing as an important tool for network engineering.

      Editor’s Acknowledgments

      I would like to thank Eva Banaszek and Matt Pedersen from Syngress Media for their support; my colleagues of Viagénie (Florent Parent, Régis Desmeules, and Annie Morin) with whom I always have good discussions on technical issues that enrich my own experience; Hélène Richard, our technical writer, who reviewed my own chapters, and finally my wife, for all her patience.

      I hope you will enjoy this comprehensive book on IP addressing.

      Marc Blanchet

      Chapter 1

      Addressing and Subnetting Basics

      Solutions in this chapter:

       IP Address Basics

       Purpose of Subnetting

       The Basic Fixed Length Mask

      IP Address Basics

      IPv4 addressing is used to assign a logical address to a physical device. That sounds like a lot to think about, but actually it is very simple. Two devices in an Ethernet network can exchange information because each of them has a network interface card with a unique Ethernet address that exists in the physical Ethernet network. If device A wants to send information to device B, device A will need to know the Ethernet address of device B. Protocols like Microsoft NetBIOS require that each device broadcast its address so that the other devices may learn it. IP uses a process called the Address Resolution Protocol. In either case, the addresses are hardware addresses and can be used on the local physical network.

      For IT Professionals

      RFC

      In this chapter you will see references to the term RFC. An RFC, Request For Comment, is a document created by the internet community to define processes, procedures, and standards that control how the Internet and associated protocols work. Each RFC is assigned a number and a title that describes the contents. As an example, RFC791 is entitled Internet Protocol and is the standard that defines the features, functions, and processes of the IP protocol. RFCs are free and the whole text of any RFC can be downloaded from the Internet. You can find them at the following URL: http://www.isi.edu/in-notes.

      As an IT Professional, you may often ask, Why did they do that? Since the RFC is the official documentation of the Internet, you can often gain insight into why things are the way they are by reading RFCs related to your question.

      What happens if device B, on an Ethernet network, wants to send information to device C on a token-ring network? They cannot communicate directly because they are on different physical networks. To solve the addressing problems of both device A and B, we use a higher layer protocol such as IPv4. IPv4 allows us to assign a logical address to a physical device. No matter what communication method is in use, we can identify a device by a unique logical address that can be translated to a physical address for actual information transfer.

      Classful Addressing–Structure and Size of Each Type

      The designers of IPv4 faced an addressing dilemma. In the early days of Internet development, networks were small and networking devices were big. Another issue was the future. In the early 1970s, the engineers creating the Internet were not aware of the coming changes in computers and communications. The invention of local area networking and personal computers was to have a momentous impact on future networks. Developers understood their current environment and created a logical addressing strategy based on their understanding of networks at the time.

      They knew they needed logical addressing and determined that an address containing 32 bits was sufficient for their needs. As a matter of fact, a 32-bit address is large enough to provide 2³² or 4,294,967,296 individual addresses. Since all networks were not going to be the same size, the addresses needed to be grouped together for administrative purposes. Some groups needed to be large, some of moderate size, and some small. These administrative groupings were called address classes.

      For IT Professionals

      Addressing

      From RFC791, page 7:

      A distinction is made between names, addresses, and routes [4]. A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there. The internet protocol deals primarily with addresses. It is the task of higher level (i.e., host-to-host or application) protocols to make the mapping from names to addresses. The internet module maps internet addresses to local net addresses. It is the task of lower level (i.e., local net or gateways) procedures to make the mapping from local net addresses to routes. Addresses are fixed length of four octets (32 bits). An address begins with a network number, followed by local address (called the rest field). There are three formats or classes of internet addresses: in class a, the high order bit is zero, the next 7 bits are the network, and the last 24 bits are the local address; in class b, the high order two bits are one-zero, the next 14 bits are the network and the last 16 bits are the local address; in class c, the high order three bits are one-one-zero, the next 21 bits are the network and the last 8 bits are the local address.

      IPv4 addresses are expressed in dotted decimal notation. For example, a 32-bit address may look like this in binary:

      To make it easier to read, we take the 32-bit address and group it in blocks of eight bits like this:

      Finally, we convert each eight-bit block to decimal and separate the decimal values with periods or dots. The converted IPv4 address, expressed as a dotted decimal address, is:

      126.136.1.47

      It is certainly easier to remember that your IP address is 126.136.1.47 instead of remembering a string of bits such as 01111110100010000000000100101111.

      What Is a Network?

      When talking about IP addressing, it is important to understand what the word network means. A network is a group of computing devices connected together by some telecommunications medium. It may be as small as a workgroup in the accounting department or as large as all of the computers in a large company, such as General Motors. From an addressing perspective, all computers in a network come under the administration of the same organization. If you want to send information to a computer, you can identify the computer by its IP address and know that the IP address is assigned to a company. The IP network can locate the computing resources of the company by locating the network. The network is identified by a network number.

      Network numbers are actually IP addresses that identify all of the IP resources within an organization. As you can see in Figure 1.1, some organizations will require very large networks with lots of addresses. Other networks will be smaller, and still other networks will need a limited number of addresses. The design of the IPv4 address space took this factor into account.

      Figure 1.1 Networks and the Internet.

      Class A

      The largest grouping of addresses is the class A group. Class A network addresses can be identified by a unique bit pattern in the 32-bit address.

      In the preceding group, you will see a 32-bit representation of a class A address. The first 8 bits of a class A address indicate the network number. The remaining 24 bits can be modified by the administrative user of the network address to represent addresses found on their local devices. In the representation above, the n’s indicate the location of the network number bits in the address. The l’s represent the locally administered portion of the address. As you can see, the first bit of a class A network address is always a zero.

      With the first bit of class A address always zero, the class A network numbers begin at 1 and end at 127. With a 24-bit locally administered address space, the total number of addresses in a class A network is 2²⁴ or 16,777,216. Each network administrator who receives a class A network can support 16 million hosts. But remember, there are only 127 possible class A addresses in the design, so only 127 large networks are possible.

      Here is a list of class A network numbers:

      10.0.0.0

      44.0.0.0

      101.0.0.0

      127.0.0.0

      Notice that these network numbers range between 1.0.0.0 and 127.0.0.0, the minimum and maximum numbers.

      Class B

      The next grouping of addresses is the class B group. Class B network addresses can be identified by a unique bit pattern in the 32-bit address.

      In the preceding example, you will see a 32-bit representation of a class B address. The first 16 bits of a class B address indicate the network number. The remaining 16 bits can be modified by the administrative user of the network address to represent addresses found on their local hosts. A class B address is identified by the 10 in the first 2 bits.

      With the first 2 bits of class B address containing 10, the class B network numbers begin at 128 and end at 191. The second dotted decimal in a class B address is also part of the network number. A 16-bit locally administered address space allows each class B network to contain 2¹⁶ or 65,536 addresses. The number of class B networks available for administration is 16,384.

      Here is a list of class B network numbers:

      137.55.0.0

      129.33.0.0

      190.254.0.0

      150.0.0.0

      168.30.0.0

      Notice that these network numbers range between 128.0.0.0 and 191.255.0.0, the minimum and maximum numbers, respectively. And remember that the first two dotted decimal numbers are included in the network number since the network number in a class B address is 16 bits long.

      Class C

      The next grouping of addresses is the class C group. Class C network addresses can be identified by a unique bit pattern in the 32-bit address.

      In the preceding example, you will see a 32-bit representation of a class C address. The first 24 bits of a class C address indicate the network number. The remaining 8 bits can be modified by the administrative user of the network address to represent addresses found on their local hosts. A class C address is identified by the 110 in the first 3 bits.

      With the first 3 bits of class C address containing 110, the class C network numbers begin at 192 and end at 223. The second and third dotted decimals in a class C address are also part of the network number. An 8-bit locally administered address space allows each class C network to contain 2⁸ or 256 addresses. The number of class C networks available for administration is 2,097,152.

      Here is a list of class C network numbers:

      204.238.7.0

      192.153.186.0

      199.0.44.0

      191.0.0.0

      222.222.31.0

      Notice that these network numbers range between 192.0.0.0 and 223.255.255.0, the minimum and maximum numbers, respectively. And remember that the first three dotted decimal numbers are included in the network number since the network number in a class C address is 24 bits long.

      To summarize, each of the three IP address classes has the characteristics shown in Table 1.1.

      Table 1.1

      Address Class Characteristics

      For IT Professionals

      Mapping Internet Addresses to Local Net Addresses

      From RFC791, page 7:

      Care must be taken in mapping internet addresses to local net addresses; a single physical host must be able to act as if it were several distinct hosts to the extent of using several distinct internet addresses. Some hosts will also have several physical interfaces (multi homing). That is, provision must be made for a host to have several physical interfaces to the network with each having several logical internet addresses.

      Address Assignments

      One task of address management is address assignment. As you begin the process of address allocation, you must understand how the addresses are used in the network. Some devices will be assigned a single address for a single interface. Other devices will have multiple interfaces, each requiring a single address. Still other devices will have multiple interfaces and some of the interfaces will have multiple addresses.

      Single Address per Interface

      A device connected to a network may have one or many networking interfaces that require an IP address. A word processing workstation in your network has a single Ethernet interface (see Figure 1.2). It needs only one IP address.

      Figure 1.2 Single address per interface.

      Multihomed Devices

      A router is a networking device used to transfer IP datagrams from one physical network to another. The router by its very nature and function will have more than one interface and will require an IP address for each interface. Devices with more than one interface are called multihomed, and the process is called multihoming.

      In Figure 1.3, the router has two interfaces. One interface is attached to the token-ring network and the other interface is attached to the Ethernet network. This is a multihomed device.

      Figure 1.3 Multihomed device.

      Assigning IP addresses to devices is a simple process (see Figure 1.4). A new device is installed in the network and the address administrator selects an unused address of the group of available addresses. The information is provided to the user of the device and the device is configured. The address given to the user must be from the same address group as all other devices on the same network or the IP data transmission rules will not work. The IP data transmission rules will be discussed in a later chapter.

      Figure 1.4 IP address configuration.

      The actual configuration process for IP addresses varies from operating system to operating system and from device to device, so consult your system documentation for instructions. An important final step requires that a careful notation about assignment of the address be made in the address administrators’ documentation so that the address is not assigned to another device.

      Multinetting—Multiple Addresses per Interface

      It is also possible that certain devices will have interfaces with more than one IP address assigned. Here is an example:

      A new Internet site is under development for a small corporation. The network administrator knows that the site will grow in the future, but today there is no need for a complex network. A server is installed that will be used as a Web server, ftp server, mail server, and the corporation’s DNS server. Later, when the use of the network services grows, new servers will be used for each of the functions.

      When the time comes to address the current server, the administrator has a choice. A single IP address can be used on the server and later, when the new servers are needed, new IP addresses can be assigned to them. Another way of assigning addresses can be used. The administrator can assign four IP addresses to the server. Each IP address will match the IP address to be used in the future on new servers. The administrator now knows what addresses will be used and can create DNS entries for the new devices with the correct addresses. The process of providing more than one IP address on an interface is often called multinetting or secondary addressing.

      Examples

      Assigning secondary addresses on Cisco routers is done using IOS configuration commands. Here is an example of how to assign a primary IP address and two secondary IP addresses to an Ethernet interface:

      The router’s Ethernet 0 interface now has addresses in the 183.55.0.0 network, the 204.238.7.0 network, and the 88.0.0.0 network.

      Purpose of Subnetting

      When the IP protocol was designed, the networks and computers were very different than they are today. With the advent of local area networks (LANS) and personal computers, the architecture of the computer networks changed. Instead of having big computers communicating over low-speed, wide area networks, we had small computers communicating over fast, local area networks.

      To illustrate why IP subnetting is necessary, let’s take a look at how IP sends datagrams. And to make it easy to understand, let’s compare the process to sending mail at the post office. If you have a message to send to a member of your local family, you can deliver it to the family member by writing it down on a piece of paper and giving it directly to him or her. IP networks do the same thing. If an IP datagram is to be sent to a computer on the same physical network, the two devices can communicate directly (see Figure 1.5).

      Figure 1.5 IP network with no subnetting.

      The device 200.1.1.98 wants to communicate with 200.1.1.3. Since they are on the same Ethernet network, they can communicate directly. They are also on the same IP network, so communication can take place without the help of any other devices.

      Let’s go back to our post office analogy. One of the children has now moved out

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