Dimensionless Physical Quantities in Science and Engineering

Elsevier

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Dedication

I dedicate this book to the memory of my teachers Prof. Vladimír Marcelli and Prof. Josef Hošek. They took me and my workplace, half a century ago, on the path of modelling and experiment.

Preface

All things are numbers.

Pythagoras of Samos (570–495BC)

The century of informatics, characterized by the remarkable growth of information, is closely connected with the increasing importance of the model experiment. The specific important has computer modelling, in practically all scientific spheres. Modelling is a powerful tool not only in terms of the scale assignment of a model and its original, as it was for a long time in the case of physical models, but also in terms of the compression of the information flow on a model and by the processing of the modelling results. In this sense, the importance of dimensionless quantities – and especially of similarity criteria – has, in fact, increased. The dominant opinion, still held by many even today, that these quantities are connected primarily with physical modelling, is mistaken. On the contrary, their importance has grown significantly in today’s dominant mathematical and computer modelling. The dimensionless formulation of a mathematical or computer model does not lose its physical importance; on the contrary, it is magnified. Simplification and generalization of modelling results to the dimensionless forms are also other significant attributes. One example is the generation of experimental mathematical models used whenever it is not possible to use an exact mathematical model. It follows that dimensionless quantities and similarity theory have an even wider importance in the contemporary development of modelling than they did in the past.

The use of dimensionless quantities in science matches only the growth of globalization in the world. Its use in science is, above all, in interlinking dimensional physical and other quantities in dimensionless groups and sinks so growth of information flow in modelling.

Dimensionless Physical Quantities in Science and Engineering presents in nine chapters approximately 1200 dimensionless quantities from several types of fields in which modelling plays an important role. It is probably the most extensive collection of these quantities involving both classic and newly developing fields. In addition to traditional fields like fluid mechanics and heat transfer, in which using dimensionless quantities has long been common, this book includes many others, in particular newly developing fields such as solid phase mechanics, electromagnetism, physical macro- and nanotechnology, technology and mechanical engineering, geophysics and ecology. Each dimensionless quantity is presented with both its physical characteristics and its significance in the relevant field.

This book is not only a simple summary of these quantities, but also features a clarification of their physical principles, areas of use and other specific properties. The book also facilitates the retrieval of dimensionless quantities for practical use. Furthermore, it provides citations to important sources, also facilitating the use of dimensionless quantities in their appropriate fields.

The wide range of different spheres in which dimensionless quantities have extraordinary importance presented considerable difficulty. First of all, for their specific dissimilarities in such physically different spheres. Moreover, there are many problems with terminology, and the unsystematic designation of single non-traditional dimensionless quantities by various authors. The book presents the established or most often used designations, and recommends preferred designations.

The book is an attempt to systematically present dimensionless physical quantities from different scientific and engineering fields. It concerns especially the fields and processes related to physical substance. Therefore, this book does not include some fields, such as economics, in which modelling has considerable importance, but in which the use of dimensionless quantities is out of physical line. The use of dimensionless quantities in medicine, biology, physiology and other spheres is increasing along with the fast development of modelling in those fields. However, this book is mostly concerned with typical dimensionless quantities or their modifications. A similar situation exists in other fields.

In this book, the presented bibliography is divided into four parts, including a part discussing books and proceedings (A) and section on articles in journals (B). Many information sources are presented on Internet sites (C), and there is also a list (D) of some simple calculators for determination of dimensionless quantities, and information related to simple software.

A mutual connection of relevant dimensionless quantities by means of cross-references is an important advantage of this book.

Josef Kuneš

Foreword

The most fascinating feature of the book Dimensionless Physical Quantities in Science and Engineering is the presentation of about 1200 dimensionless quantities relevant for modelling in several research areas, both the traditional and newly developing ones, which hopefully will contribute to the further development of model experiments. For this reason, we are indeed fortunate to have Professor Kuneš to guide the thoughts and activities of many scientists and students.

The reason for presenting this relatively great number of dimensionless quantities in this book is their extraordinary significance for modelling. They are relevant not only to scale models but also to almost all types of models, including computer models. The prevalent opinion that these quantities are primarily connected to physical modelling is erroneous. On the contrary, we cannot ignore the fact that their importance continues to grow, especially in today’s predominant mathematical and computer modelling. With the dimensionless expressions used in a mathematical or computer model, the physical meaning is not lost, but is, in fact, intensified. Moreover, the process investigated becomes more transparent, and the number of variable quantities and the intensity of the flow of information are significantly reduced. This is also true of the number of output quantities according to which the modelling results are generalized. The dimensionless quantities have fundamental significance for experimental mathematical models (phenomenological mathematical models) generally, when more exact asymptotic mathematical models cannot be used.

ovThe English edition of this book will thus certainly make a significant contribution to possible future achievements in the relevant fields of research.

Vlcek, ProfessorJ. Vl ek

Head of the Department of Physics

University of West Bohemia

Plzeň, Czech Republic

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover Image

Title

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Foreword

1. Introduction

2. Physics and Physical Chemistry

2.1 Physics, Mathematics and Geometry

2.2 Physical Chemistry

3. Fluid Mechanics

3.1 One-Phase Fluid Mechanics

3.2 Multiphase Fluid Mechanics

3.3 Rheology

4. Solid Mechanics

4.1 Linear and Non-Linear Solid Mechanics

4.2 Fracture Mechanics and Micromechanics

4.3 Aeroelasticity

4.4 Tribology

5. Thermomechanics

5.1 Heat Conduction

5.2 Free Convection

5.3 Forced Convection

5.4 Radiation

5.5 Boiling

5.6 Evaporation

5.7 Condensation

5.8 Heat and Mass Transfer

5.9 Non-Equilibrium Thermomechanics

6. Electromagnetism

6.1 Electricity

6.2 Magnetism

6.3 Magneto-hydrodynamics

7. Physical Technology

7.1 Micro- and Nanotechnology

7.2 Plasma Physics and Technology

8. Technology and Mechanical Engineering

8.1 Technology and Material

8.2 Mechanical Engineering

9. Geophysics and Ecology

9.1 Geophysics, Meteorology and Astrophysics

9.2 Ecology and Biology

References

1

Introduction

The main goal of physics is to describe a maximum of phenomena with a minimum of variables.

CERN Courier [A40]

The dimensionless quantity expresses either a simple ratio of two dimensionally equal quantities (simple) or that of dimensionally equal products of quantities in the numerator and in the denominator (composed). The dimensionless quantities can be divided into several groups. The most important group consists of the physical similarity criteria obtained by some of the similarity theory methods. They are also called generalized variable quantities. The dimensionless physical constants belong to another group. In addition, the approximate ratio quantities can also be included among the dimensionless quantities. They usually come from experimental results and from the experimenter’s intuition, i.e. without using any of the similarity theory methods. Usually, the extent of the validity of these quantities is limited only to a certain area. Other dimensionless ratio quantities can be created as well, which do not have any full-value importance from the modelling point of view.

Each of the similarity criteria can be expressed in the form of a mutual relation between, for example, two forces, momentums or energies acting in a process. Therefore, by observing the size of the criterion, an idea can be obtained from the character of the investigated process. This fact is well known, for example, with the Reynolds number Re, which expresses the dynamic-to-viscous force ratio and characterizes viscous fluid flow. According to the value of the Re number, the flow can be distributed into three fundamental characteristic types: laminar, transient and turbulent. This is similar to the use of the Weber number for single-phase and two-phase fluids, where this number expresses the ratio of the surface tension force to the inertial one. More details are in [A23] and [A24], where examples using the Weber number are given for condensation, boiling and motion of gas bubbles in a fluid or interaction of a drop with a warm wall.

Sometimes, however, it seems as though the transition from dimensional physical quantities to dimensionless ones would obscure the view of the investigated process. In fact, the contrary is true because the reduced number of variable quantities – expressed in the dimensionless way – enables one to understand the mutual physical contexts in the investigated process more deeply. A good example is the Fourier number, which is very often used to express dimensionless time. In fact, it is used in all unsteady processes occurring in various fields. For example, in thermomechanics – in the case of heat conduction – it expresses the coupling of time with the characteristic geometrical dimension and the thermal diffusivity. It is described by a single dimensionless variable which is expressive of the influence of all three dimensional quantities on the temperature field.

Because of a misunderstanding of the physical significance of the similarity criteria and the functions thereof as generalized variables, dimensional quantities are often applied even if an experiment or other research should result in an expression of the information obtained in a condensed and generalized way, so that it can be utilized for all physically similar systems. With dimensional quantities, on the contrary, the immediate perception of the process is advantageous in measurement and identification of an investigated system. The dimensionless similarity criteria impose a limitation on repeating solutions for tasks of similar character.

Physical similarity criteria are divided into composed criteria and simple (parametrical) criteria. Among other things, the importance of similarity criteria is that they keep a deep physical significance despite the fact that they are outwardly dimensionless. That is to say, they express the ratios of diverse physical quantities such as forces, energies and momentums, which especially enable one to understand the acting mechanism of individual quantities in analyzing complex physical processes. The physical similarity criteria can be obtained either by the dimensional analysis method or by the similarity analysis method, either of a phenomenological physical model or by exact mathematical model analysis. These methods have been described in the author’s book Similarity and Modeling in Science and Engineering (CISP, Cambridge, 2012) in more detail.

This book is primarily focused on physical similarity criteria in various fields which are characteristics of the development of contemporary science and engineering. Eight chapters summarize about 30 independent fields or spheres in which modelling plays an important role. The most widespread application of similarity criteria has already occurred in the era of pre-computer modelling in fluid mechanics and in heat transfer. The present number of criteria in these fields corresponds to this, and so do the systematic descriptions and surveys presented in the literature, such as [B11] and [B12]. Of course, the origin of new fields and the increasing importance of existing ones, together with the entrance of computer modelling, has resulted in the emergence of many other similarity criteria and modifications of original ones. However, the literature lacks both adequate descriptions and analyses of criteria in individual fields and magnetism are partial exceptions. A survey of the similarity criteria of several fields is given in [A32] and [A33].

The dimensionless quantities from tens of fields are summarized in eight chapters. Among them, new original and modified dimensionless quantities are presented, which have been introduced and used in the workplaces of the author.

This especially concerns chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8. Included in each of the chapters are brief profiles of many important scientists and engineers who worked in the fields surveyed and have similarity criteria named after them. This should contribute to the recognition that the dimensionless physical quantities have a human intellectual dimension in addition to their physical significance.

2

Physics and Physical Chemistry

The basic laws of physics and chemistry are like each other.

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907)

2.1 Physics, Mathematics and Geometry

In physics, dimensionless physical quantities and constants have been widely used, in thermodynamics, optics, radiation and other spheres of physics, especially in applications in various natural scientific and technical branches, and have become an important tool in their development. In mathematics, dimensionless quantities have their theoretical base in the theory of groups and also in linear algebra and matrix calculus. At the same time, the fundamental theorem to determine the similarity criteria is the dimensional homogeneity of equations of mathematical physics as defined by Fourier. The similarity criteria are practically important in numerical mathematics and computer modelling, e.g. not only in generalized dimensionless expressions of numerical solution stability of mathematical physics equations but also in other spheres of mathematics. Among the best known physical dimensionless quantities are the following numbers: Abbé, Fresnel and Snellen numbers in optics; Bejan, Boyle, Carnot, Gay-Lussac, Pitzer and Van der Walls numbers in thermodynamics; and the Planck number for radiation.

In mathematics, for example, diverse dimensionless numbers express the stability conditions of the numerical solution, such as the Courant, Damk hler, Neumann and Péclet numbers and other mathematical and geometrical dimensionless numbers.

2.1.1 Abbé Number V

nD, nF, nC (–) – refractive indices of the material at the wavelength of the Fraunhofer D-, F- and C spectral lines (589.2, 486.1 and 656.3 nm, respectively).

It is used to classify the glasses in the dispersion measurement in the visible radiation band. Low-fracture glasses have high values of V, e.g. for lead crystal glass it is V<50, whereas for crown glass it is V>50. For heavy flint glasses, the common extent of V is about 20. Very light crown glasses have values of V up to 60.

Info: [C2].

Ernst Abbé (23.1.1840–14.1.1905), German physicist and astronomer.

He was engaged in physics, mathematics and meteorology but in optics and astronomy above all. He deduced the mathematical theory of a light microscope. He designed and fabricated high-quality lenses for scientific purposes. He manufactured special instruments. He was the co-founder of the Carl Zeiss works in Jena.

2.1.2 Energy Accommodation Coefficient rE, σ, α

Ein, Ere (J) – incident and reflected energy flux; EW (J) – reflected energy flux obtained if the molecules are in thermal equilibrium.

It characterizes the mutual energetic effects of gas molecules with a solid body surface with heat passing in diluted gases. It expresses the energy of that part of the total number of gas molecules which come in contact with the surface and the energy which, after rebound or reemission, is reduced because of being accommodated to the surface temperature. Besides, it is the measure of the thermal energy transfer perfection. With the complete transfer, rE=1 is valid; and with a complete (mirrored) reflection of the energy, rE=0. Its size depends on the physical properties of the surroundings and usually does not differ very much from the number one.

Info: [A33].

2.1.3 Avogadro Number NA

The Avogadro number It is widely applied in physics, chemistry and other branches.

Info: [C5].

Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro (9.8.1776–9.7.1856), Italian mathematician, physicist and chemist.

He was engaged in statistics, physics and chemistry, and in meteorology as well. In the year 1811, he published the hypothesis known later as the Avogadro law, which expresses the fact that equal gas volumes contain equal numbers of molecules under equal temperature and pressure. However, Avogadro could not prove the hypothesis precisely by experiment and did not live to see its acceptance. To honour his work in the molar mass theory, the number of molecules in one mole of particles was named after him.

2.1.4 Bejan Thermodynamical Number Be

S1 (J K−¹) – entropy generation contribution by heat transfer; S2 (J K−¹) – entropy generation contribution by fluid friction.

It expresses the ratio of heat transfer unreturnability to the total unreturnability caused by heat transfer and fluid friction.

Info: [C6]

Adrian Bejan (born 24.9.1948), American engineer of Romanian origin.

His research activity involves a wide area of thermal engineering and thermodynamics. He was engaged in the entropy minimization problem; the energy conversion analysis (exergy); natural convection; convection in porous materials; heat and mass transfer; and problems of turbulence, melting, solidification, condensation, contamination, solar energy conversion, cryogenic engineering, applied superconductivity and tribology. He created the constructive form and structure theory in nature.

2.1.5 Boltzmann Distribution, Boltzmann Factor NB, Pn

Ni (m−3) – number of states having energy Ei; N (m−3) – total number of particles; γ (–) – magnetogyroscopic ratio; B (T) – magnetic induction; h (J s) – Planck constant; k (J K−1) – Boltzmann constant; T (K) – sample temperature.

In physics, it represents the prediction of the function of particle distribution of which each one has the energy Ei. Alternatively, it expresses the volume magnetizing vector as well.

Info: [C8].

Ludwig Boltzmann (p. 205).

2.1.6 Boyle Number Bo

TB (K) – Boyle temperature; Tcrit (K) – critical temperature.

Info: [C11].

Robert Boyle (25.1.1627–30.12.1691), Irish chemist and mathematician.

He is called the father of chemistry. He applied experimental and quantitative methods. He was the first to deliver the modern definition of chemical elements, and he used it to measure the acidity of colour indicators. He discovered the indirect proportionality between gas pressure and volume under constant temperature. This is Boyle’s law.

2.1.7 Bulk Concentration Nbc

c(kg m−3) – liquid density.

It characterizes the relative concentration of solid particles in a solution. Filtration.

2.1.8 Carnot Number Ca

T1, T2 (K) – absolute temperatures.

It characterizes the theoretical efficiency of the Carnot circulation occurring between two thermal states, limited by the thermodynamic temperatures T1 and T2. Thermodynamics.

Info: [B20],[C16].

Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1.6.1796–24.8.1832), French physicist.

He was engaged in thermodynamics above all. In the year 1824, he elaborated the thermal machines theory in his work Réflections sur la Puissance Motrice de la Feu (Considerations on the Driving Power of Fire). He designed the Carnot reversal thermal circulation and found that thermal machine efficiency depends only on the inlet and outlet temperatures.

2.1.9 Coefficient of Variation C

σ (–) – standard deviation²; μ (–) – mean value.

In probability and statistical theories, it expresses the dispersion size of the probability distribution. It is often used to evaluate the normal distribution with a positive mean value and with a standard deviation which is less than the mean deviation expressively. In compliance with the distribution character of the standard deviation, the variation coefficient size can be greater or less than one. Mathematics, statistics.

Info: [C21].

2.1.10 Compressibility Factor Z

p (Pa) – pressure; v (m³ kg−1) – specific volume; r (J kg−1 K−1) – specific gas constant; T (K) – temperature; Wa (–) – Van der Waals number (1.) (p. 32).

This factor characterizes the mutual molecular coupling in a substance for a certain thermodynamic state. At the thermodynamic critical point, the relation (2) is valid. In ideal gases with Z=1, the deviations from this value express the size of the intermolecular coupling.

Info: [C83].

2.1.11 Courant Numerical Number Cou, CFL, ν

w (m s−1 – velocity; Δτ (s) – time step; Δx, Δy (m) – mesh increment in the x and y axis; C (–) – constant (time stepping parameter) depends on the particular equation to be solved and not on Δτ and Δx; wx, wy (m s−1) – flow (fluid) velocity component in the x and y axis.

It expresses the stability criterion of a numeric process solution of one-dimensional fluid flow (1), two-dimensional (2) fluid flow and two-dimensional flow through a porous material (3). For certain fourth-order partial differential equations, the form (4) can be used. The CFL condition can be a very limiting constraint on the time step Δτ. Numerical mathematics.

Info: [B114].

2.1.12 Courant Wave Number Cou

w (m s−1) – velocity of wave propagation; Δτ (s) – time step; Δ, Δx, Δy (m) – mesh increment.

It expresses the numerical solution stability condition for wave propagation. Numerical mathematics.

Info: [A11]

2.1.13 Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy Numerical Number CFL, NCFL, Cou

Δτ (s) – time step; k (m s−1) – filtration coefficient; w, wx, wy, wz (m s−1) – flow velocity and its components; Δx, Δy, Δz (m) – space step; wBL (m s−1) – saturation velocity.

This number represents the numerical criterion to determine optimal time step in a non-stationary, two-phase, one-dimensional (1) filtering flow or in a three-dimensional (2) one. The stability condition is CFL≤1.

Info: [B114].

2.1.14 Crank–Nicolson Parameter μC

(–) – dimensionless-dependent variable; ΔFo (–) – Fourier difference number (p.13); j (–) – geometric nodal point; n (–) – time level in the numeric solution.

It occurs in the Crank–Nicolson differential diagram for a one-dimensional solution of the parabolic Fourier’s equation:

In case relation (1) is valid, the Crank–Nicolson solution is stable unconditionally. With relation (2) holding, the explicit solution (FTCS) is obtained. In the case of (3), the implicit solution is gained.

Info: [C24].

John Crank (6.2.1916–3.10.2006), English mathematician.

Together with the mathematician Phyllis Nicolson, he worked in the sphere of the numerical solution of second-order partial differential equations – especially those of unsteady heat conduction – and the solution thereof by the finite differences method. They were engaged in the problem of numerical solution instability and of the related choice of optimal geometric and time steps. The Crank–Nicolson method is stable numerically, but a simple system of linear equations must be solved at every time level.

Phyllis Nicolson (21.9.1917–6.10.1968), English mathematician.

Together with the mathematician John Crank, she worked on the solution of second-order partial differential equations numerically. As a mathematician, she was engaged in the magnetron theory and its interpretation.

2.1.15 Damk hler Numerical Number Danum

k (s−1) – disintegration unit rate; Δx (m) – mesh increment; w (m s−1) – flow velocity.

This number expresses the stability criterion in a digital process of the one-dimensional modelling of a chemical conversion in fluid flow. It characterizes the hydrodynamic influence in chemical reactions.

Info: [C98].

Gerhard Friedrich Damk hler (1908–1944), German physical chemist.

2.1.16 Dimensionless Heat Capacity NC

C (J K−1) – heat capacity of a body; n (mol) – amount of matter in the body; R (J mol−1 K−1) – molar gas constant; N (–) – number of molecules in the body; k (J K−1) – Boltzmann constant.

It expresses the body heat capacity in a dimensionless shape. Thermomechanics.

Info: [C123].

2.1.17 Eddington Number Ed

It expresses the exact number of protons in the Universe, where 136 represents the inverse value of the fine structure constant α (p. 13) as it could be stated by measurement in the given time.

Info: [C43].

Arthur Stanley Eddington (28.12.1882–22.11.1944), American physicist and astronomer.

Probably, he is the most prominent astrophysicist of the twentieth century. He examined the stellar system interior. The basic contribution consisted in the verification of gravitational curvature influence on the bending of rays around the Sun. He explained the pulsation of stars theoretically. He calculated the Sun’s nucleus temperature in millions of Kelvin. He was one of the first who defined Einstein’s relativity theory with more precision.

2.1.18 Eddington–Dirac Number EdD

This hypothetical number follows from the fact that: (i) the ratio of the mutual force of the electron and the proton equals 2.27×10³⁹, (ii) the ratio of the elementary length (radius of the electron) to the radius of the Universe is 3×10⁴⁰ and (iii) the ratio of the elementary time (electron radius to light velocity) to the Universe’s age is 6×10⁴⁰. It represents only the mysterious dimensionless number in the extent of 10⁴⁰ approximately, which was presented by Dirac with respect to digital relations between the microscopic and macroscopic scales and the effects of various forces. Considering Dirac’s hypothesis of extensive numbers, obviously this numerical relation between very different phenomena was given a deeper cosmologic significance. At present, this idea is not set greater physical store mostly.

Info: [C129].

Arthur Stanley Eddington (see above).

2.1.19 Energy Efficiency ηt

W (J) – mechanical work or energy released by the process; E (J) – quantity of work or energy used as input to run process.

It is an important technical indicator for economic utilization of processes and facilities. According to thermodynamic law, the efficiency ηt=1 cannot be reached.

Info: [C46].

2.1.20 Entropy Generation Number NS

L (m) – characteristic length (wall thickness); T0 (K) – input fluid temperature; EG (W m−3 K−1) – entropy change (volume density of heat flux) by temperature change 1 K; λ (W m−1 K−1) – wall thermal conductivity; Tw (K) – wall temperature; η (Pa s) – dynamic viscosity of the fluid; ∇xT, ∇yT (K m−1) – temperature gradient in the direction of x and y axis; ∇yu (s−1) – velocity gradient in the direction of y axis.

It characterizes the fluid entropy change in laminar streaming of viscous incompressible fluid through an inclined canal with isothermic walls. It was determined from the analysis of the second law of thermodynamics. Fluid mechanics.

Info: [B76].

2.1.21 Feigenbaum Delta δ

Tn (s) – value of the nth bifurcations period.

It characterizes the convergence velocity of the cascade redoubling period. It is determined experimentally and has the value δ>1. It is used in the dissipation theory of non-linear systems in the phase transfer measurement – for example, in electronic circuits, lasers, chemical reactions and in fluid mechanics – if approaching the turbulent state.

For example, Feigenbaum showed that all non-linear dynamic systems, showing periodic doubling, tend towards chaos and usually have a value of δ=4.669. Chaos theory.

2.1.22 Fermi’s Paradox K

T (year) – age of the Universe (T=1010); τ (year) – specific time of exponential development of our civilization (τ=10² years).

This gigantic dimensionless number, exceeding the framework of theoretical physics – see Eddington number Ed in our Universe, or virtually zero. Unfortunately, nobody has discovered them. Fermi’s paradox consists in the idea that our miracleless world is fantastic and does exist.

Info: [C54].

2.1.23 Fine Structure Constant, Sommerfeld Fine-Structure Constant α

e (C) – elementary charge (1.60219×10−19 C); ε=h (2π)−1 (1.0545887×10−34 J s); c (m s−1) – speed of light.

It is the basic dimensionless physical constant characterizing the electromagnetic interaction intensity. It was introduced into physics by A. Sommerfeld in the year 1916. It is used in analyzing Feynman’s quantum electrodynamic diagrams. Its exact value, determined on a physical basis is α−1=137 but α−1=137.0399976 if determined by experimental procedure.

Info: [A29].

Arthur Stanley Eddington (p. 10).

2.1.24 Fourier Difference Number ΔFo, Fomesh

a (m² s−1) – thermal diffusivity; Δτ (s) – time step; Δx (m) – finite increase of distance coordinate x.

In equation (1), it expresses the relation between the amount of time and the geometric steps in the numerical solution of the parabolic Fourier equation. For the explicit 1-D task, condition (2) is valid for solution stability. For the 2-D task, condition (3) is valid; for the 3-D task, condition (4) is valid. Numerical mathematics. The final difference method.

Info: [A10].

Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (p. 175).

2.1.25 Fresnel Number F

L (m) – characteristic size (radius) of the aperture; λ (m) – wavelength; s (m) – distance of the screen from the aperture.

It characterizes Frauenhofer diffraction equation (F 1) and that of Fresnel (F≥1). Optics.

Info: [C59].

Augustin Jean Fresnel (10.5.1788–14.7.1827), French physicist and mathematician.

Due to his works in optics, he became one of the founders of light wave theory. He showed the reason for optical diffraction, consisting in transversal light undulation. He created the mathematical theory of refraction and polarization in anisotropic materials. From this theory, conical refraction was predicted and discovered soon afterwards.

Joseph von Fraunhofer (6.3.1787–7.6.1826), German physicist.

In the year 1814, he investigated the solar spectrum and discovered dark spectral lines called the Fraunhofer lines. He is well known for his work on light diffraction in systems with small Fresnel numbers. This is called Fraunhofer’s diffraction to honour him.

2.1.26 f-Stop Number Nf

f (m) – focal length of the lens or mirror; D (m) – aperture diameter;

Optics, film, photography.

2.1.27 Gay-Lussac Number Gc

β (K−1) – coefficient of bulk expansion; ΔT (K) – temperature difference.

In the dimensionless form, it characterizes the relative thermal volume expansibility of substances.

Info: [A29].

Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850), French chemist and physicist.

For ideal gases, he expressed the law of gas pressure dependence on temperature, so-called the Gay-Lussac law. Later, this led to the introduction of the thermodynamic temperature scale and to the formulation of the ideal gas state equation. When only a 26-year-old chemist, he executed many courageous high-altitude atmospheric measurements by means of a balloon and with instruments he designed. He studied terrestrial magnetism as well.

2.1.28 Geometric Coordinates X, Y, Z

x, y, z (m) – dimensional coordinates; L (m) – characteristic length; S (m²) – surface area; V (m³) – volume.

They express the ratio of the coordinate of a point in space to the characteristic length of the system. In the dimensionless form, it characterizes the position of the place M (X, Y, Z) in space. For a plate, the semi-thickness (symmetrical case) or the thickness (unsymmetrical case) is usually chosen as the characteristic length. In the case of a cylinder or a ball, the radius is chosen.

Sometimes for a general shape, it is convenient to choose the volume–surface ratio of a body (module) L=V·S−1 . In the case of a plate, an unlimited cylinder and a ball, the ratio 3:1.5:1 is obtained, which is also the ratio of mutually corresponding process times according to the analytic heat transfer theory. However, the relative length, determined in this manner, does not agree with the geometric coefficient influence. Therefore, the generalized relative length L=KtV·S−1 is used sometimes where Kt is the relative shape coefficient. For a