Subsea Pipeline Integrity and Risk Management

Subsea Pipeline Integrity and Risk Management

Yong Bai

Qiang Bai

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Foreword

Preface

Part 1 Pipeline Integrity Management

Chapter 1. Corrosion and Corroded Pipelines

1. Introduction

2. Corrosion Defect Prediction

3. Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipe

Chapter 2. Buckling and Collapse of Corroded Pipes

1. Introduction

2. Moment Capacity of Pipe Under Combined Loads

3. Collapse Due to External Pressure

4. Modification to Timoshenko and Gere’s Equations

5. Interaction of Bending and Pressure

6. Conclusions

Chapter 3. Dented Pipelines

1. Introduction

2. Limit-State Based Criteria for Dented Pipes

3. Fracture of Pipes with Longitudinal Cracks

4. Fracture of Pipes with Circumferential Cracks

5. Reliability-Based Assessment

6. Design Examples

Chapter 4. Pipeline Inspection and Subsea Repair

1. Pipeline Inspection

2. Pipeline Repair Methods

3. Deepwater Pipeline Repair

Chapter 5. Integrity Management of Flexible Pipes

1. Introduction

2. Failure Modes

3. Failure Drivers and Mechanisms

4. Integrity Management Strategy

5. Inspection and Monitoring, in General

6. Testing and Analysis Measures

Chapter 6. Leak Detection Systems

1. Introduction

2. Leak Detection Methods

3. Key Attributes of Different Methods

4. Principles of Leak Detection

Chapter 7. Fiber Optic Monitoring System

1. Introduction

2. Fiber Optic Sensor Techniques

3. Types of Sensing Fiber Optics

4. Application of Fiber Optic Monitoring on Subsea Pipelines

Part 2 Risk and Reliability Applications

Chapter 8. Risk Analysis for Subsea Pipelines

1. Introduction

2. Acceptance Criteria

3. Identification of Initiating Events

4. Cause Analysis

5. Probability of Initiating Events

6. Causes of Risk

7. Failure Probability Estimation Based on Qualitative Review and Databases

8. Failure Probability Estimation Based on Structural Reliability Methods

9. Consequence Analysis

10. Example 1. Risk Analysis for a Subsea Gas Pipeline

11. Example 2. Dropped Object Risk Analysis

12. Example 3. Use of RBIM to Reduce Operation Costs

Chapter 9. Risk-Based Inspection

1. Introduction

2. Modeling the Risk

3. Acceptance Criteria

4. RBI Process

Chapter 10. Reliability-Based Strength Design of Pipelines

1. Introduction

2. Failure Probability

3. Uncertainty Measures

4. Calibration of Safety Factors

5. Reliability-Based Determination of Corrosion Allowance

Chapter 11. LCC Modeling for Pipeline Design

1. Introduction

2. Initial Cost

3. Financial Risk

4. Time Value of Money

5. Example of Fabrication Tolerance Using the LCC Model

6. Example of On-Bottom Stability Using the LCC Model

Chapter 12. Quantitative Risk Analysis Based RBI

1. Introduction

2. Methodology and Basic Principle

3. Quantitative Risk Analysis Based RBI Process

4. Case Study

Chapter 13. Risk- and Reliability-Based Fitness for Service

1. Introduction

2. Quantitative-Risk Assessment and Target Reliability

3. SRA and Retaining Pressure Capacity

4. Corrosion Rate

5. Example of Risk- and Reliability-Based FFS

Chapter 14. Pipeline Flow Risk Assessment

1. Introduction

2. Risk Assessment Method

3. Blockage Risk Assessment

4. Failure Probability of Gas Pipelines

5. Failure Probability of Oil Pipelines

6. Summary

Chapter 15. Marine Traffic Risk Assessment

1. Introduction

2. Data Collection

3. Hazards Identification

4. PoF Assessment

5. CoF Assessment

6. Risk Assessment

Chapter 16. Consequences of Failure Modeling for Oil and Gas Spills

1. Introduction

2. Detailed Assessment

3. Oil Spill Consequences

4. Gas Spill Consequences

5. Example of an Oil Spill

Chapter 17. Environmental Impact Assessment

1. Introduction

2. The Motivation and Object of EIA

3. The EIA Process

4. Impact Analysis Methodology of Oil Spills

5. Environmental Impacts

6. Example of Assessment

Chapter 18. Oil Spill Response Plan

1. Introduction

2. Oil Spill Consequences

3. Restoration Planning

4. Affected Environment

5. Cleanup Cost and Cleanup Recovery

Index

Copyright

Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier

225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK

First edition 2014

Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

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Notice

No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made.

Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Bai, Yong, author.

Subsea pipeline integrity and risk management / by Yong Bai, Qiang Bai. -- First edition.

pages cm

Summary: In most subsea developments, oil and gas productions are transported from subsea well to platform in multiphase flow without separation process. Corrosion represents increasing challenges for the operation of subsea pipelines. Corrosion can be defined as a deterioration of a metal, due to chemical or electrochemical between the metal and its environment. The tendency of a metal to corrode depends on a given environment and the metal type-- Provided by publisher.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-12-394432-0 (hardback)

1. Underwater pipelines--Corrosion. 2. Underwater pipelines--Design and construction. 3. Offshore structures--Design and construction. 4. Offshore oil well drilling--Safety measures. 5. Offshore oil industry--Risk management. I. Bai, Qiang, author. II. Title.

TC1800.B354 2014

621.8'67209162--dc23

2013047933

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

For information on all Gulf Professional publications Visit our web site at store.elsevier.com

Printed and bound in USA

14 15 16 17 18 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN: 978-0-12-394432-0

Foreword

I am delighted to write a brief Foreword to this extensive handbook for subsea pipeline integrity and risk management. It is often a challenge to find a single book that discusses all aspects of subsea pipeline integrity and risk management in sufficient detail that the practicing engineer can have this book or volume of books as a desk reference for a large range of subsea topics, instead of the engineer having to search for specific subject matter in Conference Proceedings. And the authors have succeeded in accomplishing just that. The effort it took in writing well over a 450 pages of text and formulae and cross-checking was truly a labor of love and dedication to the profession of subsea pipeline engineers, and for those readers who wish to know more about a particular subject, the list of references at the end of each chapter is truly outstanding.

Frans Kopp

January 2014

Preface

It has been 8 years since our book Subsea Pipelines and Risers (SPR) was published by Elsevier. As a new sister book of Subsea Pipeline Design, Analysis and Installation, this new book Subsea Pipeline Integrity and Risk Management reflects upon the new pipeline technologies in integrity and risk management developed by the oil and gas industry, where the authors apply them in design, consulting and integrity management. This book is written for engineers who work in the field of subsea pipeline engineering.

Pipeline integrity management has become matured and applied to the operation and maintenance. Risk and reliability management of pipelines became ever more critical in the subsea industry for QRA assessment, risk and environmental impact study as well as preparation of emergency response plans. The risk and reliability assessment has also been successfully applied for the determination of partial safety factors in design criteria.

The industry has been seeking new tools for subsea pipeline inspection and integrity management, whether the pig launchers are available or not. The authors have been also involved in the development of new tools for non-piggable pipelines, flexible pipelines and composite RTP pipelines.

We hope that these two books (Subsea Pipeline Design, Analysis and Installation, and Subsea Pipeline Integrity and Risk Management) are useful reference sources of subsea pipeline design, analysis, installation, integrity management and risk management for subsea engineers.

The authors would like to thank our graduate students, PhD and post-doctoral fellows at Zhejiang University and Harbin Engineering University, who provided editing assistance (Mr. Jiwei Tang, Mr. Carl Bai & Mr. Akira Bai) and initial technical writing (Mr. Gao Tang, Ms. Yin Zhang, Mr. Shiliang He, Mr. Hongdong Qiao, Mr. Weidong Ruan, Mr. Hui Shao, and Ms. Shahirah Abu Baka), thank Zhejiang University for their support for publishing this book.

Thanks to all the persons involved in reviewing and updating the books, particularly Ms. Anusha Sambamoorthy of Elsevier, who provided editory assistance. We specially thank our families and friends for their supports.

Dr. Qiang Bai, Prof. Yong Bai,     Houston, USA

Part 1

Pipeline Integrity Management

Outline

Chapter 1. Corrosion and Corroded Pipelines

Chapter 2. Buckling and Collapse of Corroded Pipes

Chapter 3. Dented Pipelines

Chapter 4. Pipeline Inspection and Subsea Repair

Chapter 5. Integrity Management of Flexible Pipes

Chapter 6. Leak Detection Systems

Chapter 7. Fiber Optic Monitoring System

Chapter 1

Corrosion and Corroded Pipelines

Abstract

Corrosion depends on a given environment and the metal type. The presence of carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen-sulphide (H2S) and free water in the production fluid can cause severe corrosion problems in oil and gas pipelines. Two types of corrosions may occur in the oil and gas pipeline system when the presence of CO2 and H2S in the hydrocarbons fluid: sour corrosion and sweet corrosion. The purpose of this chapter is to develop corrosion defect prediction models and the reliability based design and re-qualification criteria for assessing corroded pipelines. This evaluation focuses on corrosion defect growth; check burst strength; check bending capacity and so on. The corrosion products deposited on the steel surface is related to sufficient protection. In this chapter, corrosion defects inspection, calculating method of corrosion defect growth, corrosion predictions are discussed.

Keywords

Corroded Pipeline; Defect Prediction Model; Reliability Based Design; Re-qualification Criteria; Sour Corrosion; Sweet Corrosion

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Corrosion Defect Prediction

Introduction

Sweet: Carbon Dioxide Corrosion

Sour: Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion

Inspection for Corrosion Defects

Corrosion Defect Growth

Corrosion Predictions

CO2 Corrosion Models Comparison

Sensitivity Analysis for CO2 Corrosion Calculation

3. Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipe

NG-18 Criterion

B31G Criterion

Maximum Allowable Design Pressure

Maximum Allowable Defect Length and Depth

The Safe Maximum Pressure Level

Evaluation of Existing Criteria

Corrosion Mechanism

Spiral Corrosion

Pits Interaction

Groove Interactions

Corrosion in Welds

Effect of Corrosion Width

References

1. Introduction

In most subsea developments, oil and gas production is transported from the subsea well to a platform in multiphase flow without a separation process. Corrosion represents increasing challenges for the operation of subsea pipelines. Corrosion can be defined as a deterioration of a metal due to chemical or electrochemical reactions between the metal and its environment. The tendency of a metal to corrode depends on a given environment and the metal type.

The presence of carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen-sulfide (H2S), and free water in the production fluid can cause severe corrosion problems in oil and gas pipelines. Internal corrosion in wells and pipelines is influenced by temperature, CO2 and H2S content, water chemistry, flow velocity, oil or water wetting, and the composition and surface condition of the steel. Corrosion-resistant alloys, such as 13% Cr steel and duplex stainless steel, are often used in downhole piping of subsea equations and structures. However, for long-distance pipelines, carbon steel is the only economically feasible alternative and corrosion has to be controlled and the flowline protected from the corrosion both internally and externally.

This chapter develops prediction models of corrosion defects and the reliability based design and requalification criteria for assessing corroded pipelines. This evaluation focuses on the following interrelated issues:

• Corrosion defect growth.

• Checking burst strength (allowable versus maximum internal service pressure).

• Checking bending capacity (allowable versus maximum external service pressure, bending moment, and axial load).

• Checking adequacy of residual corrosion allowance for remaining service life.

• Inspecting corrosion defects.

• Updated inspection and maintenance programs.

2. Corrosion Defect Prediction

Introduction

Two types of corrosions may occur in the oil and gas pipeline system when CO2 and H2S are present in the hydrocarbons fluid: sour corrosion and sweet corrosion. Sweet corrosion occurs in systems containing only carbon dioxide or a trace of hydrogen sulfide (H2S partial pressure < 0.05 psi). Sour corrosion occurs in systems containing hydrogen sulfide above a partial pressure of 0.05 psia (0.34 kPa) and carbon dioxide.

When corrosion products are not deposited on the steel surface, very high corrosion rates of several millimeters per year (mm/yr) can occur. This worst case corrosion is the easiest type to study and reproduce in the laboratory. When CO2 dominates the corrosivity, the corrosion rate can be reduced substantially under conditions where iron carbonate can precipitate on the steel surface and form a dense and protective corrosion product film. This occurs more easily at high temperatures or high pH values in the water phase. When H2S is present in addition to CO2, iron sulfide films are formed rather than iron carbonate, and protective films can be formed at lower temperatures, since iron sulfide precipitates much more easily than iron carbonate. Localized corrosion with very high corrosion rates can occur when the corrosion product film does not give sufficient protection, and this is the most feared type of corrosion attack in oil and gas pipelines.

Sweet: Carbon Dioxide Corrosion

Carbon dioxide is composed of one atom of carbon with two atoms of oxygen. It is a corrosive compound found in natural gas, crude oil, condensate, and produced water. It is one of the most common environments in the oil field industry where corrosion occurs. The CO2 corrosion is enhanced in the presence of both oxygen and organic acids, which can dissolve iron carbonate scale and prevent further scaling.

Carbon dioxide is a weak acidic gas and becomes corrosive when dissolved in water. However, CO2 must hydrate to carbonic acid, H2CO3, which is a relatively slow process, before it becomes acidic. Carbonic acid causes a reduction in the pH of water and results in corrosion when it comes in contact with steel.

Areas where CO2 corrosion is most common include flowing wells, gas condensate wells, areas where water condenses, tanks filled with CO2, saturated produced water, and pipelines, which are generally corroded at a slower rate because of lower temperatures and pressures. The CO2 corrosion is enhanced in the presence of both oxygen and organic acids, which can act to dissolve iron carbonate scale and prevent further scaling.

The maximum concentration of dissolved CO2 in water is 800 ppm. When CO2 is present, the most common forms of corrosion include uniform corrosion, pitting corrosion, wormhole attack, galvanic ringworm corrosion, heat affected corrosion, mesa attack, raindrop corrosion, erosion corrosion, and corrosion fatigue. The presence of carbon dioxide usually means no H2 embrittlement.

Rates of CO2 corrosion are greater than the effect of carbonic acid alone. Corrosion rates in a CO2 system can reach very high levels (thousands of millions per year), but it can be effectively inhibited. Velocity effects are very important in the CO2 system: Turbulence is often a critical factor in pushing a sweet system into a corrosive regime. This is because it either prevents formation or removes a protective iron carbonate (siderite) scale.

Products of CO2 corrosion include iron carbonate (siderite, FeCO3), iron oxide, and magnetite. Corrosion product colors may be green, tan, or brown to black. This can be protective under certain conditions. Scale itself can be soluble. Conditions favoring the formation of a protective scale are elevated temperatures, increased pH as occurs in bicarbonate-bearing waters, and lack of turbulence, so that the scale film is left in place. Turbulence is often the critical factor in the production or retention of a protective iron carbonate film. Iron carbonate is not conductive. Therefore, galvanic corrosion cannot occur. Therefore, corrosion occurs where the protective iron carbonate film is not present and is fairly uniform over the exposed metal. Crevice and pitting corrosion occur when carbonate acid is formed. Carbon dioxide can also cause embrittlement, resulting in stress corrosion cracking.

Sour: Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion

Hydrogen sulfide is a flammable and poisonous gas. It occurs naturally in some groundwater. It is formed from decomposing underground deposits of organic matter, such as decaying plant material. It is found in deep or shallow wells and also can enter surface water through springs, although it quickly escapes to the atmosphere. Hydrogen sulfide often is present in wells drilled in shale or sandstone or near coal or peat deposits or oil fields.

Hydrogen sulfide gas produces an offensive rotten egg or sulfur water odor and taste in water. In some cases, the odor may be noticeable only when the water is initially turned on or when hot water is run. Heat forces the gas into the air, which may cause the odor to be especially offensive in a shower. Occasionally, a hot water heater is a source of hydrogen sulfide odor. The magnesium corrosion control rod present in many hot water heaters can chemically reduce naturally occurring sulfates to hydrogen sulfide.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) occurs in approximately 40% of all wells. Wells with large amounts of H2S are usually labeled sour; however, only wells with 10 ppm or above can be labeled sour. Partial pressures above 0.05psi H2S are considered corrosive. The amount of H2S appears to increase as the well grows older. The H2S combines with water to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4), a strongly corrosive acid. Corrosion due to H2SO4 is often referred to as sour corrosion. Since hydrogen sulfide combines easily with water, damage to stock tanks below water levels can be severe.

Water with hydrogen sulfide alone does not cause disease. However, hydrogen sulfide forms a weak acid when dissolved in water. Therefore, it is a source of hydrogen ions and is corrosive. It can act as a catalyst in the absorption of atomic hydrogen in steel, promoting sulfide stress cracking (SSC) in high strength steels. Polysulfides and sulfanes (free acid forms of polysulfides) may be formed when hydrogen sulfide reacts with elemental sulfur.

The corrosion products are iron sulfides and hydrogen. Iron sulfide forms a scale at low temperatures and can act as a barrier to slow corrosion. The absence of chloride salts strongly promotes this condition, and the absence of oxygen is absolutely essential. At higher temperatures, the scale is cathodic in relation to the casing, and galvanic corrosion starts. The chloride forms a layer of iron chloride, which is acidic and prevents the formation of FeS layer directly on the corroding steel, enabling the anodic reaction to continue. The hydrogen produced in the reaction may lead to hydrogen embrittlement. A nuisance associated with hydrogen sulfide includes its corrosiveness to metals such as iron, steel, copper, and brass. It can tarnish silverware and discolor copper and brass utensils.

Inspection for Corrosion Defects

The scope of the assessment for corrosion defects consists of a proper characterization of defects by thickness profile measurements and an initial screening phase to decide whether detailed analysis is required.

The assessment of a single isolated defect is to be based on a critical profile defined by the largest measured characteristic dimensions of the defect (e.g., depth, width, length) and properly calibrated safety and uncertainty factors, to account for uncertainties in the assessment and thickness measurements.

A distance equivalent to the normal pipe wall thickness may be used as a simple criterion of separation for colonies of longitudinally oriented pits separated by a longitudinal distance or parallel longitudinal pits separated by a circumferential distance. For longitudinal grooves inclined to the pipe axis,

• If the distance, x, between two longitudinal grooves of length L1 and L2 is greater than either L1 or L2, then the length of corrosion defect L is L1 or L2, whichever is greater. It can be assumed that there is no interaction between the two defects.

• If the distance, x, between two longitudinal grooves of length L1 and L2 is less than either L1 or L2, it is assumed that the two defects are fully interacted and the length of the corrosion defect L is to be taken as L = L1 + L2 + x.

Corrosion Defect Growth

The corrosion defect depth, d, after the time, T, of operation may be estimated by using an average corrosion rate, Vcr:

[1.1]

where d0 is defect depth at present time.

The defect length may be assumed to grow in proportion with the depth, hence:

[1.2]

where L and L0 are defect lengths at the present time and the time T later.

Corrosion Predictions

The CO2 corrosion of carbon steel used in oil production and transportation, when liquid water is present, is influenced by a large number of parameters, some of which follow:

• Temperature.

• CO2 partial pressure.

• Flow (flow regime and velocity).

• pH.

• Concentration of dissolved corrosion product (FeCO3).

• Concentration of acetic acid.

• Water wetting.

• Metal microstructure (welds).

• Metal prehistory.

The detailed influence of these parameters is still poorly understood and some of them are closely linked to each other. A small change in one of them may influence the corrosion rate considerably.

Various prediction models have been developed and are used by different companies. Among them are the de Waard et al. model (Shell), CORMED (Elf Aquitaine), LIPUCOR (Total), and a new electrochemically based model developed at IFE. Due to the complexity of the various corrosion controlling mechanisms involved and a built-in conservatism, the corrosion models often overpredict the corrosion rate of carbon steel.

The Shell model for CO2 corrosion is most commonly used in oil and gas industry. The model is mainly based on the de Waard et al.’s equation published in 1991 [1]. Starting from a worst case corrosion rate prediction, the model applies correction factors to quantify the influence of environmental parameters and corrosion product scale formed under various conditions. However, the first version of the model was published in 1975, and it has been revised several times to make it less conservative by including new knowledge and information. The original formula of de Waard and Milliams implied certain assumptions that necessitated the application of correction factors for the influence of environmental parameters and for the corrosion product scale formed under various conditions.

Rates of CO2 corrosion in pipelines made of carbon steel may be evaluated using industry accepted equations, which preferably combine contributions from flow-independent kinetics of the corrosion reaction at the metal surface, with the contribution from flow-dependent mass transfer of dissolved CO2.

The corrosion rate calculated from the original formula with its correction factors is independent of the liquid velocity. To account for the effect of flow, a new model was proposed, which takes the effect of mass transport and fluid velocity into account by means of a so-called resistance model:

[1.3]

where the corrosion rate Vcr is in mm/year; Vr is the flow-independent contribution, denoted the reaction rate; and Vm is the flow-dependent contribution, denoted the mass transfer rate.

In multiphase turbulent pipeline flow, Vm depends on the velocity and the thickness of the liquid film, while Vr depends on the temperature, CO2 pressure, and pH. For example, for pipeline steel containing 0.18% C and 0.08% Cr, the equations for Vr and Vm for liquid flow in a pipeline are

[1.4]

where Tmp is pipeline fluid temperature in °C, and the partial pressure pCO2 of CO2 is in bar. The partial pressure pCO2 can be found by

[1.5]

where nCO2 is the fraction of CO2 in the gas phase, and popr is the operating pressure in bar.

The mass transfer rate Vm, is approximated by

[1.6]

where U is the liquid flow velocity in m/s, and d is the inner diameter in m.

CO2 Corrosion Models Comparison

The corrosion caused by the incidences of CO2 represents the greatest risk to the integrity of carbon steel equipment in a production environment and is more common than damage related to fatigue, erosion, or stress corrosion cracking. NORSOK, Shell, as well as other companies and organizations have developed models to predict the corrosion degradation.

NORSOK’s standard M-506 may be used to calcuate the CO2 corrosion rate which is an empirical model for carbon steel in water containing CO2 at different temperatures, pH, CO2fugacity, and wall shear stress. The NORSOK model covers only the corrosion rate calculation where CO2 is the corrosive agent. It does not include additional effects of other constituent, which may influence the corrosivity, such as H2S, which commonly appears in the production flowlines. If such constituent is present, the effect must be evaluated separately. None of the de Waard et al. models includes the H2S effect.

Figure 1.1 shows an example of corrosion rate prediction in a subsea gas condensate pipeline. Here, two of the most commonly used corrosion prediction models were combined with a three-phase fluid flow model to calculate corrosion rate profiles along a pipeline. This can help identify locations where variation in flow regime, flow velocity, and water accumulation may increase the risk of corrosion damage. For this pipeline, the temperature was 90°C at the inlet and 20°C at the outlet, and the decrease in predicted corrosion rates toward the end of the pipeline is mainly a result of the decreasing temperature. The lower corrosion rates close to the pipeline inlet are due to the effect of protective corrosion films at high temperatures, which is predicted differently by the two corrosion models used. The peaks in predicted corrosion rates result from variation in flow velocity due to variations in the pipeline elevation profile.

FIGURE 1.1   Predicted Corrosion Rate in a Subsea Pipeline.  Source: Nyborg [2]. (For color version of this figure, the reader is referred to the online version of this book.)

Sensitivity Analysis for CO2 Corrosion Calculation

Table 1.1 presents the base case for the following sensitivity analysis. These data are based on the design operating data for a 10 in. production flowline.

Total System Pressure and CO2 Partial Pressure

An increase in total pressure leads to an increase in corrosion rate because pCO2 increases in proportion. With increasing the pressure, the CO2 fugacity fCO2, should be used instead of the CO2 partial pressure, pCO2, since the gases are not ideal at high pressures. The real CO2 pressure can be expressed as

[1.7]

where a is fugacity constant, which depends on pressure and temperature, such as the following:

Figures 1.2 and 1.3 present the effect of total pressure and CO2 partial pressure on the corrosion rate, respectively. With increasing the total pressure and CO2 partial pressure, the corrosion rate is greatly increased.

Table 1.1

Base Case for Sensitivity Analysis

System Temperature

Temperature has the effect of the formation of protective film. At lower temperatures, the corrosion product can be easily removed by flowing liquid. At higher temperatures, the film becomes more protective and less easily washed away. Further increase in temperature results in a lower corrosion rate and the corrosion rate goes through a maximum [1]. This temperature is referred as the scaling temperature. At this temperature, pH and Fe++ concentration form at the steel’s surface. At temperatures exceeding the scaling temperature, the corrosion rates tend to decrease to close to zero, according to De Waard et al. Tests in IFE Norway reveal that the corrosion rate is still increasing when the design temperature is beyond the scaling temperature [3].

FIGURE 1.2   Effect of Total Pressure on the Corrosion Rate.   (For color version of this figure, the reader is referred to the online version of this book.)

FIGURE 1.3   Effect of CO 2 on the Corrosion Rate.   (For color version of this figure, the reader is referred to the online version of this book.)

Figure 1.4 shows the effect of temperature on the corrosion rate, where the total pressure is 48 bar and the pH is equal to 4.2. The corrosion rate increases with increasing the temperature, when the temperature is lower than the scaling temperature.

H2S

Hydrogen sulfide can depress pH when it dissolves in a CO2 aqueous solution. The presence of H2S in CO2-brine systems can reduce the corrosion rate of steel when compared to the corrosion rate without H2S at temperatures less than 80°C, due to the formation of a meta-stable iron sulfide film. At higher temperatures, the combination of H2S and chlorides produce higher corrosion rates than just the CO2-brine system, since the protective film is not formed.

FIGURE 1.4   Effect of Temperature on the Corrosion Rate.   (For color version of this figure, the reader is referred to the online version of this book.)

The H2S at levels below the NACE criteria for sulfide stress corrosion cracking (per MR0175, NACE publication) reduces general metal loss rates but can promote pitting. The pitting proceeds at a rate determined by the CO2 partial pressure and therefore CO2-based models are still applicable at low levels of H2S. Where the H2S concentration is greater or equal to the CO2 value or greater than 1 mol %, the corrosion mechanism may not be controlled by CO2 and therefore CO2-based models may not be applicable.

pH

The pH affects the corrosion rate by affecting the reaction rate of cathodes and anodes, therefore, the formation of corrosion products. The contamination of a CO2 solution with corrosion products reduces the corrosion rate. The pH has a dominant effect on the formation of corrosion films, due to its effect on the solubility of ferrous carbonate. An increase in pH slows down the cathodic reduction of H+. Figure 1.5 presents the relationship between the pH and corrosion rate. In a solution with a pH less than 7, corrosion rate decreases with increasing pH.

Inhibitors and Chemical Additives

Inhibitors can reduce the corrosion rate by presenting a protective film. The presence of the proper inhibitors with optimum dosage can maintain the corrosion rate at 0.1 mm/year. Use of inhibitors can greatly decrease corrosion rate and, therefore, increase pipeline life.

FIGURE 1.5   Effect of pH on Corrosion Rate.   (For color version of this figure, the reader is referred to the online version of this book.)

The impingement of sand particles can destroy the inhibitor film and, therefore, reduce the inhibitor efficiency. Inhibitors also perform poorly in low-velocity lines, particularly if the fluids contain solids, such as wax, scale, or sand. Under such circumstances, deposits inevitably form at the 6 o’clock position, preventing the inhibitor from reaching the metal surface. Flow velocities below approximately 1.0 m/s should be avoided if inhibitors are expected to provide satisfactory protection, and this is critical in lines containing solids.

Inhibitor Efficiency versus Inhibitor Availability

When inhibitors are applied, there are two ways to describe the extent to which an inhibitor reduces the corrosion rate, the use of inhibitor efficiency (IE) and the use of the inhibitor availability (IA). A value of 95% for IE is commonly used. However, inhibitors are unlikely to be constantly effective throughout the design life. For instance, increased inhibitor dosage or better chemicals increase the inhibitor concentration. It may be assumed that the inhibited corrosion rate is unrelated to the uninhibited corrosivity of the system, and all systems can be inhibited to 0.1 mm/year. The corrosion inhibitor is not available 100% of the time and therefore corrosion will proceed at the uninhibited rate for some periods.

Figure 1.6 shows the inhibited corrosion rate under different inhibitor