Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry

1

Origin of Nuclear Science

Abstract

The science of the radioactive elements and radioactivity in general is rather young compared to its maturity. In 1895 W. Roentgen was working with the discharge of electricity in evacuated glass tubes. Incidentally the evacuated glass tubes were sealed by Bank of England sealing wax and had metal plates in each end. The metal plates were connected either to a battery or an induction coil. Through the flow of electrons through the tube a glow emerged from the negative plate and stretched to the positive plate. If a circular anode was sealed into the middle of the tube the glow (cathode rays) could be projected through the circle and into the other end of the tube. If the beam of cathode rays were energetic enough the glass would glow (fluorescence). These glass tubes were given different names depending on inventor, e.g. Hittorf tubes (after Johann Hittorf) or Crookes tubes (after William Crookes). Roentgens experiments were performed using a Hittorf tube.

Keywords

Radioactive elements; X-rays; Polonium; Radioactive decay; Periodic table; Nuclear power

Chapter Outline

1.1. Radioactive Elements

1.2. Radioactive Decay

1.3. Discovery of Isotopes

1.4. Atomic Models

1.5. Nuclear Power

1.6. Literature

1.1 Radioactive Elements

The science of the radioactive elements and radioactivity in general is rather young compared to its maturity. In 1895 W. Roentgen was working with the discharge of electricity in evacuated glass tubes. Incidentally the evacuated glass tubes were sealed by Bank of England sealing wax and had metal plates in each end. The metal plates were connected either to a battery or an induction coil. Through the flow of electrons through the tube a glow emerged from the negative plate and stretched to the positive plate. If a circular anode was sealed into the middle of the tube the glow (cathode rays) could be projected through the circle and into the other end of the tube. If the beam of cathode rays were energetic enough the glass would glow (fluorescence). These glass tubes were given different names depending on inventor, e.g. Hittorf tubes (after Johann Hittorf) or Crookes tubes (after William Crookes). Roentgens experiments were performed using a Hittorf tube.

During one experiment the cathode ray tube was covered in dark cardboard and the laboratory was dark. Then a screen having a surface coating of barium-platinum-cyanide started to glow. It continued even after moving it further away from the cathode ray tube. It was also noticed that when Roentgens hand partly obscured the screen the bones in the nad was visible on the screen. A new, long range, penetrating radiation was found. The name X-ray was given to this radiation. Learning about this, H. Becquerel, who had been interested in the fluorescent spectra of minerals, immediately decided to investigate the possibility that the fluorescence observed in some salts when exposed to sunlight also caused emission of X-rays. Crystals of potassium uranyl sulfate were placed on top of photographic plates, which had been wrapped in black paper, and the assembly was exposed to the sunlight. After development of some of the photographic plates, Becquerel concluded (erroneously) from the presence of black spots under the crystals that fluorescence in the crystals led to the emission of X-rays, which penetrated the wrapping paper. However, Becquerel soon found that the radiation causing the blackening was not a transformation of solar energy because it was found to occur even with assemblies that had not been exposed to light; the uranyl salt obviously produced radiation spontaneously. This radiation, which was first called uranium rays (or Becquerel rays) but later termed radioactive radiation (or simply radioactivity)¹, was similar to X-rays in that it ionized air, as observed through the discharge of electroscopes.

Marie Curie subsequently showed that all uranium and thorium compounds produced ionizing radiation independent of the chemical composition of the salts. This was convincing evidence that the radiation was a property of the element uranium or thorium. Moreover, she observed that some uranium minerals such as pitchblende produced more ionizing radiation than pure uranium compounds. She wrote: this phenomenon leads to the assumption that these minerals contain elements which are more active than uranium. She and her husband, Pierre Curie, began a careful purification of pitchblende, measuring the amount of radiation in the solution and in the precipitate after each precipitation separation step. These first radiochemical investigations were highly successful: "while carrying out these operations, more active products are obtained. Finally, we obtained a substance whose activity was 400 times larger than that of uranium. We therefore believe that the substance that we have isolated from pitchblende is a hitherto unknown metal. If the existence of this metal can be affirmed, we suggest the name polonium. It was in the publication reporting the discovery of polonium in 1898 that the word radioactive was used for the first time. It may be noted that the same element was simultaneously and independently discovered by W. Marckwald who called it radiotellurium".

In the same year the Curies, together with G. Bemont, isolated another radioactive substance for which they suggested the name radium. In order to prove that polonium and radium were in fact two new elements, large amounts of pitchblende were processed, and in 1902 M. Curie announced that she had been able to isolate about 0.1 g of pure radium chloride from more than one ton of pitchblende waste. The determination of the atomic weight of radium and the measurement of its emission spectrum provided the final proof that a new element had been isolated.

1.2 Radioactive Decay

While investigating the radiochemical properties of uranium, W. Crookes and Becquerel made an important discovery. Precipitating a carbonate salt from a solution containing uranyl ions, they discovered that while the uranium remained in the supernatant liquid in the form of the soluble uranyl carbonate complex, the radioactivity originally associated with the uranium was now present in the precipitate, which contained no uranium. Moreover, the radioactivity of the precipitate slowly decreased with time, whereas the supernatant liquid showed a growth of radioactivity during the same period (Fig. 1.1). We know now that this measurement of radioactivity was concerned with only beta- and gamma-radiations, and not with the alpha-radiation which is emitted directly by uranium.

Figure 1.1 Measured change in radioactivity from carbonate precipitate and supernatant uranium solution, i.e. the separation of daughter element UX (Th) from parent radioelement uranium.

Similar results were obtained by E. Rutherford and F. Soddy when investigating the radioactivity of thorium. Later Rutherford and F. E. Dorn found that radioactive gases (emanation) could be separated from salts of uranium and thorium. After separation of the gas from the salt, the radioactivity of the gas decreased with time, while new radioactivity grew in the salt in a manner similar to that shown in Fig. 1.1. The rate of increase with time of the radioactivity in the salt was found to be completely independent of chemical processes, temperature, etc. Rutherford and Soddy concluded from these observations that radioactivity was due to changes within the atoms themselves. They proposed that, when radioactive decay occurred, the atoms of the original elements (e.g. of U or of Th) were transformed into atoms of new elements.

The radioactive elements were called radioelements. Lacking names for these radioelements, letters such as X, Y, Z, A, B, etc., were added to the symbol for the primary (i.e. parent) element. Thus, UX was produced from the radioactive decay of uranium, ThX from that of thorium, etc. These new radioelements (UX, ThX, etc.) had chemical properties that were different from the original elements, and could be separated from them through chemical processes such as precipitation, volatilization, electrolytic deposition, etc. The radioactive daughter elements decayed further to form still other elements, symbolized as UY, ThA, etc. A typical decay chain could be written: Ra → Rn → RaA → RaB → , etc.; see Fig. 1.2.

Figure 1.2 The three naturally occurring radioactive decay series and the man-made neptunium series. Although ²³⁹Pu (which is the parent to the actinium series) and ²⁴⁴Pu (which is the parent to the thorium series) have been discovered in nature, the decay series shown here begin with the most abundant long-lived nuclides.

A careful study of the radiation emitted from these radioactive elements demonstrated that it consisted of three components which were given the designation alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ). Alpha-radiation was shown to be identical to helium ions, whereas beta-radiation was identical to electrons. Gamma-radiation had the same electromagnetic nature as X-rays but was of higher energy. The rate of radioactive decay per unit weight was found to be fixed for any specific radioelement, no matter what its chemical or physical state was, though this rate differed greatly for different radioelements. The decay rate could be expressed in terms of a half-life, which is the time it takes for the radioactivity of a radioelement to decay to one-half of its original value. Half-lives for the different radioelements were found to vary from fractions of a second to millions of years; e.g. that of ThA is 0.1 of a second, of UX it is 24.1 days (Fig. 1.1), and of uranium, millions of years.

1.3 Discovery of Isotopes

By 1910 approximately 40 different chemical species had been identified through their chemical nature, the properties of their radiation, and their characteristic half-lives. The study of the generic relationships in the decay of the radioactive species showed that the radioelements could be divided into three distinct series. Two of these originated in uranium and the third in thorium. B. Boltwood found that all three of the series ended in the same element – lead.

A major difficulty obvious to scientists at that time involved the fact that while it was known from the Periodic Table (Appendix I) that there was space for only 11 elements between lead and uranium, approximately 40 radioelements were known in the decay series from uranium to lead. To add to the confusion was the fact that it was found that in many cases it was not possible to separate some of the radioelements from each other by normal chemical means. For example, the radioelement RaD was found to be chemically identical to lead. In a similar manner, spectrographic investigations of the radioelement ionium showed exactly the same spectral lines that had been found previously to be due to the element thorium.

In 1913 K. Fajans and Soddy independently provided the explanation for these seemingly contradictory conditions. They stated that by the radioactive α-decay a new element is produced two places to the left of the mother element in the periodic system and in α-decay a new element is produced one place to the right of the mother element (Fig. 1.2). The radioelements that fall in the same place in the periodic system are chemically identical. Soddy proposed the name isotopes to account for different radioactive species which have the same chemical identity.

Research by J. J. Thomson soon provided conclusive support for the existence of isotopes. If a beam of positively charged gaseous ions is allowed to pass through electric or magnetic fields, the ions follow hyperbolic paths which are dependent on the masses and charges of the gaseous ions (see Fig. 3.1 and associated text). When these ion beams strike photographic plates, a darkening results which is proportional to the number of ions which hit the plate. By using this technique with neon gas, Thomson found that neon consists of two types of atoms with different atomic masses. The mass numbers for these two isotopes were 20 and 22. Moreover, from the degree of darkening of the photographic plate, Thomson calculated that neon consisted to about 90% of atoms with mass number 20, and 10% of atoms with mass number 22.

Thus a chemical element may consist of several kinds of atoms with different masses but with the same chemical properties. The 40 radioelements were, in truth, not 40 different elements but were isotopes of the 11 different chemical elements from lead to uranium.

To specify a particular isotope of an element, the atomic number . However, the neutrino emitted is usually not written out in β-decay reactions like (1.2).

In radioactive decay both mass number and atomic number are conserved. Thus in the decay chain of the first two steps are written:

(1.1)

(1.2)

Frequently, in such a chain, the half-life (t1/2) for the radioactive decay is shown either above or below the arrow. A shorter notation is commonly used:

(1.3)

where the half-lives are given in years (y) and days (d)². The three naturally occurring radioactive decay series, which are known as the thorium series, the uranium series, and the actinium series, are shown in Fig. 1.2. A fourth series, which originates in the synthetic element neptunium, is also shown. This series is not found naturally on earth since all of the radioactive species have decayed away long ago. Both the present symbolism of the isotope as well as the historical (i.e. radioelement) symbolism are given in Fig. 1.2. Note that the rule of Fajans and Soddy is followed in each series so that α-decay causes a decrease in atomic number by two units and mass number by four, whereas β-decay produces no change in mass number but an increase in atomic number by one unit. Moreover, we see a pattern occurring frequently in these series where an α-decay step is followed by two β-decay steps. All known isotopes of elements 81Tl to 92U are given in Figure 13.4.

1.4 Atomic Models

Neither radioactive decay nor the discovery of isotopes provided information on the internal structure of atoms. Such information was obtained from scattering experiments in which a substance, such as a thin metal foil, was irradiated with a beam of 〈-particles and the intensity (measured by counting scintillations from the scattered particles hitting a fluorescent screen) of the particles scattered at different angles measured (see Fig. 10.4). It was assumed that the deflection of the particles was caused by collisions with the atoms of the irradiated material. About one in 8000 of the á-particles was strongly deflected through angles greater than 90°. Consideration of these rare events led Rutherford in 1911 to the conclusion that the entire positive charge of an atom must be concentrated in a very small volume whose diameter is about 10–14 m. This small part of the atom he called the nucleus. The atomic electrons have much smaller mass and were assumed to surround the nucleus. The total atom with the external electrons had a radius of approximately 10–10 m in contrast to the much smaller radius calculated for the nucleus.

It was soon shown that the positive charge of the atomic nucleus was identical to the atomic number assigned to an element in the periodic system of Mendeleev. The conclusion, then, is that in a neutral atom the small, positively charged nucleus was surrounded by electrons whose number was equal to the total positive charge of the nucleus. In 1913 N. Bohr, using quantum mechanical concepts, proposed such a model of the atom which remains the basis of the modern atomic theory.

Our understanding of the nucleus has grown rapidly since Rutherford's scattering experiments. Some of the important steps in the history of nuclear science are listed in Table 1.1. Many of these discoveries and their practical consequences are discussed in the subsequent text.

Table 1.1

Historical survey of nuclear science

1.5 Nuclear Power

The peaceful use of the nuclear fission energy to produce electricity was first successfully employed in 1951 by the EBR-1 (Experimental Breeder Reactor) in the US. This was a fast breeder reactor using enriched uranium as fuel and cooled by a NaK eutectic melt. Originally it produced enough electricity to power four 200 W light bulbs and subsequently enough to power its own building. In 1955 the EBR-1 suffered a partial melt down and was finally deactivated in 1964. Admittedly the EBR-I produced the first electricity it was not really connected to the grid. This was achieved by the nearby plant, BORAX-III, which in 1955 made the nearby city of Arco to be the first city solely powered by nuclear energy.

Similar activities were performed in the Soviet Union where an existing graphite moderated channel-type plutonium production reactor was modified for heat and electricity generation by introducing a heat exchange system. It became the world's first thermal neutron nuclear powered electricity generator in 1954. The reactor was called AM-1 (Atom Mirny – peaceful atom) with a capacity of 30 MWth or 5 MWe. AM-1 produced electricity until 1959 and was used as a research facility and for production of radioisotopes until 2002. As seen above the general construction was close to the later infamous Chernobyl reactor RBMK (reaktor bolshoi moshchnosty kanalny – high power channel reactor).

The pressurised water reactor (PWR) history start with the use in naval propulsion. The Mark 1 prototype naval reactor became critical in 1953 which led to the first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus, was launched in 1954. This reactor led to the building in 1957 of the 60 MWe Shippingport demonstration PWR reactor in Pennsylvania. This reactor operated until 1982.

A boiling water reactor (BWR) prototype, Vallecitos, was operated from 1957 to 1963 but the first electricity producing one, Dresden-1 of 250 MWe was started in 1960 and was operating until 1978. There reactors also used enriched uranium fuel.

In Canada a different route was selected. Instead of going through the uranium enrichment process they created the CANDU reactor using natural uranium oxide fuel in a heavy water moderated and normal water cooled channel type reactor. The first one was started in 1962.

After these initial steps essentially four reactor systems are in general use: natural water moderated and cooled (PWR/VVER and BWR), heavy water moderated and natural water cooled (CANDU), and graphite moderated and water cooled (RBMK).

1.6. Literature

Historical reading and classics in nuclear chemistry:

1. Rutherford E, Chadwick J, Ellis CD. Radiations from Radioactive Substances. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1930; (reprinted 1951).

2. Curie M. Radioactivité. Paris: Herrmann; 1935.

3. Hahn O. Applied Radiochemistry. Cornell University Press 1936.

4. Smyth HD. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 1946.

5. Beyer RT. Foundations of Nuclear Physics. New York: Dover Publ. Inc.; 1949.

6. Hahn O. A Scientific Autobiography. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons; 1966.

7. Nobel Lectures, Chemistry and Nobel Lectures, Physics, Elsevier, Amsterdam 1966 and later.

8. Glasstone S. Source Book on Atomic Energy. 3rd edn. New York: van Nostrand; 1967.

9. Romer A. Radiochemistry and the Discovery of Isotopes. Dover Publ. 1970.

10. Seaborg GT, Loveland WD. Nuclear Chemistry. Stroudsberg: Hutchinson; 1982.

11. Rhodes R. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. Simon & Schuster 1986.

12. May J. The Greenpeace Book of the Nuclear Age. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd.; 1989.

13. Am Nucl Soc vol. 1 & 2. Behrens JW, Carlson AD, eds. 50 Years with Nuclear Fission. Illinois: La Grange Park; 1989.

14. Seaborg GT, Loveland WD. The Elements Beyond Uranium. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.; 1990.

Journals of importance to radiochemistry and nuclear chemistry:

1. Radiochimica Acta. Vol. 99 Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag; 2011.

2. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. Vol. 290 Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó; 2011.

3. Applied Radiation and Isotopes. Vol. 69 Elsevier 2011.

4. Health Physics. Vol. 101 Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore: Lippincott; 2011.

5. International Atomic Energy Agency Bulletin, and other IAEA publications, Vienna.

6. Nuclear Engineering International. Vol. 49 Global Trade Media 2011.

7. Nuclear Science and Engineering, Am. Nucl. Soc., La Grange Park, Illinois (Vol. 169, 2011).

8. Nuclear Technology, Am. Nucl. Soc., La Grange Park, Illinois (Vol. 176, 2011).

¹The word radioactivity refers to the phenomenon per se as well as the intensity of the radiation observed.

²IUPAC recommends a for annum, instead of y, however y will be used throughout this text as it remains the commonly used term.

Chapter 2

Elementary Particles

Abstract

This chapter gives the reader an insight in the world of sub-electron particles. It is in no way exhaustive but is intended to tease the interest of the reader into studying more literature dedicated to this specific subject. The basics of nuclear physics is of great importance to understand the mechanism governing the physics inside a nucleus.

The electron, proton and neutron are well known elementary particles. However, high energy nuclear collisions, such as those that occur in the atmosphere when it is hit by very high energy particles from space, are known to produce a wealth of other particles which once used to be called elementary particles. Such particles can now also be formed using large particle accelerators on earth, e.g. the one in CERN.

Keywords

Elementary particles; Gravity; Interaction force; Electromagnetic force; Discrete momentum; Schrödinger theory; Hole theory; Neutrino; Quarks; Standard Model

Chapter Outline

2.1. Elementary Particles

2.2. Forces of Nature

2.3. Waves and Particles

2.4. Formation and Properties of Some Elementary Particles

2.5. The Neutrino

2.6. Quarks and the Standard Model

2.7. Exercises

2.8. Literature

This chapter gives the reader an insight in the world of sub-electron particles. It is in no way exhaustive but is intended to tease the interest of the reader into studying more literature dedicated to this specific subject. The basics of nuclear physics is of great importance to understand the mechanism governing the physics inside a nucleus.

The electron, proton and neutron are well known elementary particles. However, high energy nuclear collisions, such as those that occur in the atmosphere when it is hit by very high energy particles from space, are known to produce a wealth of other particles which once used to be called elementary particles. Such particles can now also be formed using large particle accelerators on earth, e.g. the one in CERN.

2.1 Elementary Particles

The group of elementary particles began to be considerably expanded about 1947 when physicists discovered the first of the so-called strange particles in cloud chamber pictures of cosmic rays, see Figure 2.1. These new elementary particles were called strange because they lived almost a million million times¹ longer than scientists had any reason to expect at that time. The population of elementary particles has literally exploded since then, as physicists have built larger and larger particle accelerators, by which it is possible to impart sufficient kinetic energy to protons so that interaction with nuclides transform a large fraction of the kinetic energy into matter. The present limit is in the multi TeV range (Ch. 16). In 2011 it is thus possible to produce particles with a mass of up to ∼3500 proton masses, and hundreds of new strange particles have been observed. Figure 2.2 is a typical picture of a reaction observed in a liquid hydrogen bubble chamber at an accelerator center.

Figure 2.1 Secondary particles produced by a 10⁴ GeV helium atom in a photographic emulsion.

Figure 2.2 The reaction products of an annihilated antiproton as seen in the CERN liquid hydrogen bubble chamber. (Annual report 1961, CERN).

This has created a scientific area called elementary particle physics. It is quite different from nuclear physics, which is concerned with composite nuclei only. A principal objective of elementary particle physics has been to group the particles together according to their properties to obtain a meaningful pattern, which would describe all particles as parts of some few fundamental building blocks of nature. One step in this direction is to study how the elementary particles interact with each other, i.e. what kind of forces are involved.

Scientists have long doubted that all the particles produced with masses between the electron and the proton (loosely referred to as mesons, i.e. intermediate), and with masses greater than the proton (referred to as baryons, heavy) really are elementary. It was proposed that they have a substructure or constitute excited states of each other. Are they waves or particles since they serve as carriers of force? At this point it is important to understand what is meant by particle in nuclear physics.

2.2 Forces of Nature

Considering what an immense and incredible diverse assembly the universe is – from the cosmos to man and microbes – it is remarkable that scientists have been able to discover with certainty only four basic forces, which govern the attraction and repulsion of all physical objects of nature. Let us consider these forces of nature in a qualitative way from the weakest to the strongest, see Table 2.1.

Table 2.1

Forces of nature in order of strength and their exchange particles

†Not yet detected.

The first and weakest force of nature is that of gravity. The gravitational force, Fg, beween two masses, m1 and m2, at a distance r is given by eqn (2.1), where G is the universal constant of gravity (G = (6,6742 ± 0,0007) × 10–11 N m² kg–2).

(2.1)

Fg is the force that causes all objects to always attract one another and is responsible for the attraction of the planets to the sun in the solar system and of the solar system to the rest of the galaxy. It is also the force that holds us to the earth. It seems paradoxical that the weakest attraction of the four basic forces of nature is the force that is responsible for the assembly of the largest objects on the greatest scale. In modern physics it is believed that all forces are carried by something which either can be described as a wave or as a particle (see §2.3). The carrier of the gravitational force is the graviton. Experimenters have tried various ways to detect gravitational waves, but so far the results are negative.

The second weakest force is the one which is involved in the radioactive β-decay of atoms (see Ch. 5). It is known as the weak interaction force. This weak interaction force operates over extremely short distances and is the force that is involved in the interaction of very light particles known as leptons (electrons, muons, and neutrinos) with each other and as well as their interaction with mesons, baryons, and nuclei. The carrier of the weak interaction force is still a matter of considerable research; we will return to this point later.

The third weakest force of nature with which we are all relatively familiar is that of the electromagnetic force. The electromagnetic force, Fe, is expressed by Coulomb's law and is responsible for the attraction and repulsion between charged bodies, see eqn (2.2) where z1 and z2 are the charges, r is the distance and ke is a constant (ke = 1/(4πε0) in the SI-system).

(2.2)

Just as the gravitational force holds the planets in their orbits about the sun and explains the stability of the planetary systems, the electromagnetic force explains the attraction/repulsion between electrons in atoms, ionic bonds in molecules, molecules and ions in crystals. It is the force that holds the atomic world together. It is approximately 10³⁶ times stronger than the gravitational force. If gravity is the force underlying the laws of astronomy, electromagnetism is the force underlying the laws of chemistry and biology. The carrier of the electromagnetic force is the photon.

The fourth major force in nature is the nuclear force. This force is also known as the strong interaction force and is the one responsible for holding nuclear particles together. Undoubtedly it is the strongest in nature but operates only over the very short distance of approximately 10–14 m and saturates rapidly, i.e. only a few nucleons are involved. Whereas electromagnetism binds electrons to nuclei in atoms with an energy corresponding to a few electron volts, the strong interaction force holds nucleons together in nuclei with energies corresponding to millions of electron volts. The carrier of the strong interaction force is recognized to be the gluon; we will return to this point in §2.6. One characteristic of leptons is that they seem to be quite immune to the strong interaction force.

The general comparison between the different forces is shown in Table 2.1. The strong nuclear force is approximately 10² times greater than the Coulombic force, while the weak interaction force is smaller than the strong attraction by a factor of approximately 10¹³.

There is also a considerable difference in the reaction time of the different interactions. The strong interaction manifests itself in its ability to react in very short times. For example, for a particle, which passes an atomic nucleus of about 10–15 m in diameter with a velocity of approximately 10⁸ m s–1 (i.e. with a kinetic energy of ∼50 MeV for a proton and 0.03 MeV for an electron), the time of strong interaction is about 10–23 s. This is about the time of rotation of the atomic nucleus. The weak interaction force requires a much longer reaction time and explains why leptons such as electrons and photons do not react with atomic nuclei but do react with the electron cloud of the atom, which has a diameter on the order of 10–10 m. There is sufficient time in passing this larger diameter for the weak interaction force to be effective. It is expected that the electromagnetic force and the gravitational force are very fast compared to the weak nuclear force.

2.3 Waves and Particles

It is daily experience that moving bodies have a kinetic energy, Ev, which involves a mass and a velocity, v. Less familiar is the concept of Planck (1900) in which light moves in wave packets of energy:

(2.3)

Here ν is the frequency of light with wavelength λ

(2.4)

and h the Planck constant, 6.63 × 10–34 J s.

Einstein – in the theory of the photoelectric effect –, and Compton – in the theory of the scattering of photons (Ch. 6) – showed that photons have not only a discrete energy, but also a discrete momentum (pν).

(2.5)

Photons seem to collide with other particles as if they have a real mass and velocity as in the classical mechanical expression for momentum: p = mv. If we put v = c and equate with (2.5) we obtain a relativistic mass of the photon as

(2.6)

This is the mass-energy relation of Einstein.

There are many examples of mass properties of photons. To the two mentioned above we may add the solar pressure (i.e. photons from the sun which push atoms away from the sun and into space), which has played a significant part in the formation of our planetary system, and measurements showing that photons are attracted by large masses through the gravitational force. Thus we see the evidence for the statement in the beginning that all moving elementary particles must have relativistic mass, even if the rest mass is zero.

It is reasonable to assume, as de Broglie did in 1924, that since photons can behave as moving particles moving particles may show wave properties. From the previous equations, we can – by replacing c by v – derive that the wavelength of such matter waves is

(2.7)

This relation is of importance in explaining nuclear reactions, and has led to practical consequences in the use of electron diffraction, and in the development of electron microscopy.

The wave and particle properties of matter complement each other (the complementarity principle; N. Bohr, 1928). Throughout this book we either use models based on wave properties or sometimes on particle properties, depending on which more directly explain the particular phenomenon under discussion.

2.4 Formation and Properties of Some Elementary Particles

The track formed by a moving particle in the magnetic field of a bubble chamber is characterized by its width, length and curvature. From a kinematic analyses of the tracks it is possible to determine the mass and charge of the particles involved, see Ch. 3, and Ch. 9. Further, as seen at points A-B and E-F in Figure 2.2, the interruption of a track can indicate formation of an uncharged particle, as they do not form visible tracks. From a knowledge of the tracks formed by known particles, strange tracks can be analyzed to identify new particles in bubble chamber pictures and to assign their properties. All these properties have to be quantized, so new quantum states have been introduced, like baryon number, statistics, symmetry, parity, hypercharge, isospin, strangeness, color, etc. in addition to spin. It is found that many of the particles observed are sensitive to only one or two of the forces of nature (§2.2), which serves as an additional aid in their classification. Nevertheless, the array of properties assigned to the hundreds of elementary particles which have been discovered resembles the situation when 40 radioelements were reported between uranium and lead, as described in chapter 1.

Before we proceed to the order which has evolved from this picture we must describe some of the concepts used to define these particles. It has been practical to divide the particles according to their masses: (i) baryons are the heavy ones (protons, neutrons, hyperons and nuclei), (ii) leptons are the light ones (the electron, the neutrino and the muon); (iii) mesons have intermediate masses; these include the π-meson, the K-meson, etc. The baryons and the mesons have also been considered as hadrons, hard or strong particles as they take part in the strong nuclear force. Such properties were used to develop a table of elementary particles, Table 2.2.

Table 2.2

Common elementary particles in nuclide reactions

S = Strong interaction; W = Weak interaction; A-yes = baryon number conserved; P± = conservation of parity and parity sign; P-no = parity not conserved; s = spin quantum number. All these particles have their anti-particles, except for the photon and mesons, which are their own anti-particles.

†Baryons include the nucleons (n and p), hyperons (also called strange baryons, with m0 1116 for Λ⁰ to 1673 MeV for Ω–, and lifetimes ≈ 10–10 s), and all nuclei.

††K– and π+ decay into corresponding anti-particles in a similar way.

†††π⁰ rest mass is 135.0 MeV.

††††See also Table 10.2.

All the particles in Table 2.2 have spin². Quantum mechanical calculations and experimental observations have shown that each particle has a fixed spin energy which is determined by the spin quantum number s (s = ±½ for leptons and nucleons). Particles of non-integral spin are called fermions because they obey the statistical rules devised by Fermi and Dirac, which state that two such particles cannot exist in the same closed system (nucleus or electron shell) having all quantum numbers the same (referred to as the Pauli principle). Fermions can be created and destroyed only in conjunction with an anti-particle of the same class. For example if an electron is emitted in β-decay it must be accompanied by the creation of an anti-neutrino. Conversely, if a positron β+ – which is an anti-electron – is emitted in the β-decay, it is accompanied by the creation of a neutrino.

Fermions are the building blocks of nature. There is another group of particles, called bosons, to which the photon and mesons belong. The bosons are the carriers of forces. When two fermions interact they continually emit and absorb bosons. The bosons have an even spin (0, 1, etc), they do not obey the Pauli principle, and they do not require the formation of anti-particles in their reactions.

The well known Schrödinger wave equation is given by eqn (2.8). It requires that the mass of e.g. an electron is constant and independent of its velocity.

(2.8)

However, the well tested Lorenz equation (2.9) shows that this is not true in our universe.

(2.9)

Here mv is the electron mass at velocity v, m0 is the rest mass, and c is the velocity of light. Hence there was a search for an alternative wave equation which would be valid in our universe with its limited speed of light. In 1928 Paul Dirac proposed his well known alternative (2.10) to the Schrödinger equation.

(2.10)

where m0 is the rest mass of the electron, c is the speed of light, p is the momentum, understood to be an operator in the sense of the Schrödinger theory, x and t is the reduced Planck constant, h divided by 2π, β and αk are 4 × 4 matrices, and ψ is the wave function which has four components. This equation is valid also when the speed of light is finite and it is thus relativistically correct.

The analytical solution of the Dirac wave equation for the energy a single electron is enclosed in a square root. Normally the negative sign is neglected for many such solutions. However, Dirac later recognized that also the solution with negative energy could have a physical meaning. The hole theory assumes that the negative energy levels of our universe are completely filled with all kind of particles at all possible quantum states. If sufficient energy is added (> twice the rest mass of the particle) to a point in space it is possible to lift such a particle from the negative part of our universe into our normal space. Behind it is left a hole, which to us looks like the same particle but with opposite charge – an anti-particle. A similar theory is used to explain the electrical behavior of semiconductors, see Ch 9.

When the hole theory is generalized, it follows that all particles have their corresponding anti-particles, hence all the particles mentioned have their antiparticles (designated by a bar above the particle symbol), except the photon and the mesons, who are their own antiparticles. We may think about antimatter as consisting of antiprotons and antineutrons in an antinucleus surrounded by antielectrons (i.e. positrons). Superficially, there would be no way to distinguish such antimatter from our matter (sometimes called koino matter). It has been proposed that the universe is made up of matter and antimatter as a requirement of the principle of symmetry. In that case some galaxies, which perhaps can be observed, should be made up of antimatter. When such antimatter galaxies (or material expelled from them) collide with koino matter galaxies, both types of matter are annihilated and tremendous amounts of energy released.

Some of the problems with the Dirac hole theory, like a possibly unlimited amount of particles with negative energy, is addressed by the Quantum Field Theory (QFT). However, that theory also seems to have its problems like an infinite amount of vacuum energy. QFT will not be used here and the interested reader is referred to modern text books in particle physics.

In order to reach the goal of a comprehensive, yet simple, theory of the composition of all matter, the properties of the neutrinos and the quark theory must be considered.

2.5 The Neutrino

The neutrino is a fermion that plays an essential role in the models of elementary particles and in the theory of the formation and development of the universe. The existence of the electron neutrino was predicted by Pauli in 1927 but it was not proven until 1956 when Reines and Cowan detected them in experiments at the Savannah River (USA) nuclear reactor. Since neutrinos are emitted in the β– decays following fission, nuclear reactors are the most intense neutrino sources on earth. The detector in the discovery experiments consisted of a scintillating solution containing cadmium surrounded by photomultipliers to observe the scintillations which occurred as a consequence of the following reactions:

(2.11)

(2.12)

(2.13)

The γ's emitted are of different energy; the γ1 is 0.511 MeV, but γ2 much higher. There is also a time lag between the γ's because of the time required for the fast neutrons to be slowed down to thermal energy. The detection system allowed a delay time to ascertain a relation between γ1 and γ2 (delayed coincidence arrangement). When the reactor was on, 0.2 cpm were observed, while it was practically zero a short time after the reactor had been turned off thereby demonstrating the formation of neutrinos during reactor operation.

Since the 1950s it has become clear that neutrinos exist as several types – called flavors. In β– decay an anti-neutrino is formed, while a neutrino is emitted in β+ decay. Both these neutrinos are now referred to as electron neutrinose and νe, respectively.

Other elemental particles are the pion and the muon. The pions formed in nuclear particle reactions are unstable and decay with a life-time of 3 × 10–8 s into a muon and a μ neutrino:

(2.14)

The mass of the muon is 0.1135 u (105.7 MeV). The muon is also unstable and has a life-time of 2 × 10–6 s; it decays into an electron, an e neutrino and a μ anti-neutrino:

(2.15)

).

In 1979 Reines, Sobel and Pasierb made new neutrino measurements with a detector containing heavy water so that the neutrinos would split the ²H atom into two protons and a high energy electron, or convert it into two neutrons and a positron. The neutron will decay into a proton and an electron. Both reactions would only be sensitive to the νe; by measuring the neutron yield, the number of νe's could be calculated and compared to the calculated νe flux from the reactor. The two different decays could be followed by measuring the time delays between neutron capture and γ emission (see Ch. 9). The ratio of these two measurements was 0.43 ± 0.17.

In summary there are three flavors of neutrinos: (i) the electron neutrino, νe, which accompanies β decay, (ii) the muon neutrino, νμ, which accompanies pion decay, and (iii) the tau neutrino, ντ, which is only involved in very high energy nuclear reactions. The three flavors of neutrinos all have their anti particles. They have spin, no charge (quark charge zero), but possibly a small mass. They react very weakly with matter, the reaction cross section (cf. Ch. 11) being of the order of 10–43 cm², depending on neutrino energy.

Various attempts have been made to determine the neutrino rest mass, for example by measuring the decay of soft beta emitters like tritium, or double β decay as ⁸²Se → ⁸²Kr. The present published value for the mass of the electron neutrino is 0.07 eV or 1.25 × 10−37 kg. The three flavors of neutrinos are in a steady exchange, νe to νμ to ντ etc, i.e. they oscillate between the various flavors. Because speed is converted back and forth to neutrino rest mass the three flavors propagate with different speed. The total flux of neutrinos is large at the earth's surface, on the average 6.5 × 10¹⁰ s–1 m–2.

An international collaboration built a neutrino detection station, Gallex, in a rock facility in the Gran Sasso mountain in the Appenines, Italy, which operated between 1991 and 1997. Some ⁷¹Ga atoms in 30.3 tons of gallium metal was reacting with solar neutrinos to form ⁷¹Ge (t½ 11.4 d) which was converted to the gaseous hydride, GeH4, and counted in a proportional detector.

In 1987 a large underground neutrino detector near Fairport, Ohio, in a few seconds registered a sudden burst of 8 events. Taking into account that the normal background rate is about 2 events per day, which is believed to be caused by neutrinos produced in the sun's fusion reactions, this was an exceptional occurrence not only because of the event rate but also because the source was located outside our solar system and was a bright new supernova, SN1987A, appearing in the Large Magellanic Cloud. This was a lucky observation because the previous near by supernova was observed in 1604 by Johannes Kepler. The neutrino observation preceded the optical confirmation and it has been calculated that about 10⁵⁸ neutrinos were released in the explosion.

A very large neutrino detector, OPERA, is operating at the Gran Sasso facility replacing the earlier Gallex. It has been used to measure the speed of neutrinos by time of flight from a pulsed neutrino generating target at CERN.

One of the most significant effects of the neutrino mass relates to the mass of the Universe. According to the Big Bang Theory of the origin of the Universe (see Ch. 12) there should be as many neutrinos as there are photons in the microwave background radiation remaining from the Big Bang, or about 100 million times as many neutrinos as other particles. If these neutrinos had a mass >10 eV they would constitute the dominant mass in the Universe. This would mean that there would be enough mass in our Universe for gravitational attraction eventually to overcome the present expansion, and consequently we would have a closed, or possibly pulsating universe, instead of a universe which will continue to expand infinitely. Surprisingly, current observations of the most distant galaxies suggest an accelerating expansion of the Universe instead.

2.6 Quarks and the Standard Model

All particles are considered to be possible states in which matter can condense. These states are related to the force that forms them. In this sense the solar system is a state of gravitational force, an atom is a state of electromagnetic force, and a nucleon is a state of the strong interaction force. A particle can represent a positive energy state of a system while its analog antiparticle represents the negative state of the same system. Some regular patterns have been found for the elementary particles which indicate that many of them in fact may only be exited states of the same particle, differing in quantum numbers such as spin (or hyper charge); in fact hundreds of such states are now known. For example, the neutron has a mass corresponding to 939 MeV and spin 1/2, and there is a baryon with mass 1688 MeV and spin 5/2 with all its other properties like those of the neutron: the heavier particle must be a highly excited state of the neutron.

Though many attempts have been made to unify all particles into one simple theory, this did not succeed until the quark theory was developed. To explain this we have to go back somewhat in time.

The spin of a charged particle leads to the formation of a magnetic moment directed along the axis of rotation. It was discovered in the late 1930s that the magnetic moment of the proton spin (Mp = 1.41 × 10–26 J T–1) is about 1/700 of the electron spin (Me = 9.27 × 10–24 J T–1), although theory predicts a ratio of 1/1836 (= Mp/Me; see Ch. 6). Also, the neutron has a negative magnetic moment (Mn = –0.97 × 10–26 J T–1). The only explanation scientists could offer for this deviation was that the proton is not an evenly charged rotating sphere, but contains some internal electrical currents, and also the neutron must contain some internal charges, which balance each other to appear uncharged. Thus, it was doubtful that protons and neutrons were truly elementary.

Around 1960 Hofstadter and co-workers at the large Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC, Ch. 16) proved that both the proton and the neutron have an uneven internal nuclear charge density. This came from studies of the scattering of high energy electrons (∼1 GeV) against protons and neutrons. It was suggested by Gell-Mann that this could mean that the proton and neutron were composed of smaller particles, with fractional charge and mass, which he called quarks. The intense search for such particles (leading to the discovery of many new elementary particles) culminated in the late 1970s in experiments in which still higher electron energies (4 – 21 GeV) were used and the energy and scattering angle of the electrons measured. These revealed that the nucleons had hard internal scattering centers with charge 1/3 that of the electron and mass 1/3 that of the nucleon. These particles, quarks, are held together by gluons, which are carriers of the nuclear force.

These results have led to the Standard Model of the building blocks of matter. According to this model all matter on Earth – and likely in the Universe – (and including our own bodies) consists to > 99% of quarks with associated gluons. The rest is electrons.

Elementary particles now come in only two kinds: quarks and leptons. There are only six quarks and six leptons, see Table 2.3. The leptons are the electron, e, the muon, μ, and the tauon (tau particle), τ, and their respective neutrinos. The quarks and leptons are grouped together in three families (or generations) of two quarks and two leptons each. This makes 12 elementary building blocks, or 24 if one includes their anti particles; Table 2.3 only refers to our matter (i.e. koino matter). The leptons and quarks all have different properties and names, sometimes also referred to as colors. The physical theory relating these particles to each other is therefore named Quantum Chromo Dynamics (QCD).

Table 2.3

Classification and properties of elementary particles according to the standard model

EM = electromagnetic force, W = weak interaction, S = strong interaction.

All matter in nature belongs to the first family, which consist of two leptons, the electron and electron-neutrino, and the up-quark and the down-quark. The proton is made up of 2 up-quarks and 1 down-quark, giving it a charge of +1 and mass 1, while the neutron is made up of 1 up- and 2 down-quarks giving it a charge of 0 and mass of 1:

(2.16)

(2.17)

where u and d represent the up and down quarks, respectively. The neutron decay (§5.4.5) can be written according to the quark model: i.e. a d-quark is transformed into a u-quark with the simultaneous emission of an electron and an anti-neutrino, see Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Neutron decay according to the quark model (simplified by omitting the intermediate vector boson, which decays to an electron and an antineutrino).

In all reactions the lepton number must be conserved: the total number of leptons minus anti leptons on each side of a decay or reaction process must be the same. A similar law is valid for the quarks. In the reaction above several quantum numbers are obeyed: (i) the charge is the same on both side, (ii) the lepton number is zero on both sides (none = electron minus anti neutrino), (iii) the quark number is conserved. The elementary reactions in Figure 2.2 can all be described in terms of lepton and quark transformations.

All hadrons contain 3 quarks, while all mesons are made up of 2 quarks or anti quarks. The quarks move around in the nucleus, which makes it difficult to observe these minute particles: if an atom had the size of the earth, the size of the quark would be about half a cm. The quarks cannot appear free but must appear together in groups of two or three.

The second family in Table 2.3 contains the heavy electron, the muon and the muon neutrino, and the charm and the strange quarks. The third family contains the tau particle, the tau electron, and the two quarks referred to as top (or truth) and bottom (or beauty). These quarks can only be produced in high energy particle reactions.

By combination of quarks and leptons, the true elementary particles of nature, it is possible to systematize all known particles. The success of this theory, founded on good experimental evidence, has been so great that its name, the Standard Model of matter, is justified.

The force between two particles arises from the exchange of a mediator that carries the force at a finite speed: one of the particles emits the mediator, the other absorbs it. The mediator propagates through space and, briefly, is not lodged with either particle. These mediators have the same properties as the elementary particles – mass, electric charge, spin – so physicists often call them particles as well, even though their role in nature is quite different from that of the elementary particles. The mediators are the mortar that binds the particle building blocks together.

Three kinds of mediators – or exchange forces, as we have called them – are known in the nuclear world: photons which are involved in the electromagnetic force, gluons which are the mediators of the strong nuclear force, and the weak force mediators, which underlies the radioactive decay. We know now a great deal about the photons and the gluons, but little about the weak force. The weak force mediators are the W+, W– and Z⁰ particles. A high energy electron is supposed to be able to emit a Z⁰, and then a positron can absorb the electron: the particles annihilate each other, leaving the Z⁰ momentarily free. Afterwards the Z⁰ must decay back into a pair of elementary particles, such as an electron and positron, or a quark and an antiquark. Z⁰ particles are produced in high energy proton-antiproton colliders; around 1983 researchers at the CERN and SLAC laboratories were able to determine the Z⁰ mass to 91.2 GeV. This is the heaviest known unit of matter today.

2.7 Exercises

2.1. Which type of mesons are released in high energy particle interactions, and why?

2.2. (a) What kinds of forces exist in nature? (b) How does the weak interaction manifest its properties?

2.3. (a) What are bosons and how do they differ from fermions? (b) Does the difference have any practical consequence?

2.4. What proof exists that the photon has matter properties?

2.5. How can the neutrino be detected?

2.8. Literature

1. Gregory BP. Annual Report. CERN 1974.

2. Landolt - Börnstein. In: Properties and Production Spectra of Elementary Particles. Springer Verlag 1972; Neue Serie I 6.

3. Weinberg S. Unified Theories of Elementary Particle Interaction. Sci Amer. 1974;231:50.

4. Jacob M, Landsheff P. The Inner Structure of the Proton. Sci Amer. 1980;242:66.

5. Krane KS. Introductory Nuclear Physics. J. Wiley & Sons 1988.

6. Rees JR. The Stanford Linear Accelerator. Sci Am. 1989.

7. Rubbia C, Jacob M. The Z⁰. Amer Scient. 1990;78:502.

8. Amsler C, et al, Particle Data Group. The Review of Particle Physics: Neutrino Mass, Mixing, and Flavor Change. Physics Letters. 2008;B 667.

¹million million times = 10¹² times

²Spin is an intrinsic property of elementary particles, sometimes wrongly thought of as a rotation.

Chapter 3

Nuclei, Isotopes and Isotope Separation

Abstract

From a practical point of nuclear chemistry we accept the commonly used model that the nucleus is composed of only protons and neutrons. For the purposes of the scope of this book this definition is enough even if, as seen in Chapter 2, the world is far more complex than that. Although this is a simplification most observable patters of nuclear chemistry can be explained and the nomenclature can be kept simple. For example, the oxygen atom of mass number 16 has a nucleus which consists of 8 protons and 8 neutrons; since neutrons have no charge but are very similar to protons in mass, the net nuclear charge is +8. There are also 8 extranuclear electrons in the neutral atom of oxygen.

Keywords

Nucleons; Isotopes; Atomic masses; Atomic weights; Universal mass unit; Mass spectrometer; Blend; Isotopic ratios; Partition function; Kinetic energy; Paleotemperatures; Transmission coefficient; Enrichment factor; Centrifuge technology

Chapter Outline

3.1. Species of Atomic Nuclei

3.2. Atomic Masses and Atomic Weights

3.3. Determination of Isotopic Masses and Abundances

3.3.1. The mass spectrometer

3.3.2. Applications

3.4. Isotopic Ratios in Nature

3.5. Physicochemical Differences for Isotopes

3.6. Isotope Effects in Chemical Equilibrium

3.6.1. The partition function

3.6.2. Kinetic energy and temperature

3.6.3. The partial partition functions

3.6.4. The isotopic ratio

3.6.5. Paleotemperatures and other applications

3.7. Isotope Effects in Chemical Kinetics

3.8. Isotope Separation Processes

3.8.1. Multistage processes

3.8.2. Chemical exchange

3.8.3. Electrolysis

3.8.4. Gaseous diffusion

3.8.5. Electromagnetic isotope separation

3.8.6. Gas centrifugation

3.8.7. Other methods of isotope separation

3.9. Exercises

3.10. Literature

From a practical point of nuclear chemistry we accept the commonly used model that the nucleus is composed of only protons and neutrons. For the purposes of the scope of this book this definition is enough even if, as seen in Chapter 2, the world is far more complex than that. Although this is a simplification most observable patters of nuclear chemistry can be explained and the nomenclature can be kept simple. For example, the oxygen atom of mass number 16 has a nucleus which consists of 8 protons and 8 neutrons; since neutrons have no charge but are very similar to protons in mass, the net nuclear charge is +8. There are also 8 extranuclear electrons in the neutral atom of oxygen.

3.1 Species of Atomic Nuclei

Both the protons and the neutrons in the nucleus are commonly denominated nucleons. The mass number A is the total number of nucleons. Thus

(3.1)

where Z is the number of protons, i.e. the atomic number and N is the number of neutrons. The elemental identity and the chemical properties are basically determined by the atomic number even if most chemical interactions take place via the interactions of the surrounding electron cloud.

As we have seen in Chapter 1, an element may be composed of atoms that, while having the same number of protons in the nuclei, have different mass numbers and, therefore, different numbers of neutrons. Neon, for example, has an atomic number of 10, which means that the number of protons in the nuclei of all neon atoms is 10; however, 90% of the neon atoms in nature have 10 neutrons present in their nuclei while 10% of the atoms have 12 neutrons. Such atoms of constant Z but different A are called isotopes. The heavy hydrogen isotopes ²H and ³H are used so often in nuclear science that they have been given special names and symbols, deuterium (D) and tritium (T), respectively.

The word isotope is often misused to designate any particular nuclear species, such as ¹⁶O, ¹⁴C, ¹²C. It is correct to call ¹²C and ¹⁴C isotopes of carbon since they are nuclear species of the same element. However, ¹⁶O and ¹²C are not isotopic since they belong to different elemental species. The more general word nuclide is used to designate any specific nuclear species; e.g. ¹⁶O, ¹⁴C, and ¹²C are nuclides. The term radionuclide should be used to designate any radioactive nuclide, although, somewhat illogically, radioisotope is a common term used for the same purpose.

In addition to being classified into isotopic groups, nuclides may also be divided into groupings with common mass numbers and common neutron numbers. Isotopes are nuclides with a common number of protons (Z), whereas isobar is the term used to designate nuclides