Non-Destructive Testing '92

WCNDT

13th World Conference on Non-Destructive Testing 13th WCNDT

BOARD

Carlos Hallai Jr.

President

Paulo Kulcsar

Vice President

Joao Antonio Conte

ICNDT Secretary

G.M. van Dijk

Past President

Oswalso Rossi

Vice President

Officials of the 13th WCNDT

Carlos Hallai Jr.

WCNDT President

Oswaldo Rossi Jr.

Scientific Committee

Amilton Carvalhal

Exhibition

Marcia Tellini

WCNDT Assistant Secretary

Alejandro Spoerer

Finances

Wilson do Amaral Zaitune

Scientific Committee

Marta S. Loewenstein

WCNDT General Secretary

Sponsors

Hugo Deschaumes

AGFA

Hilton Sergio B. Milani

SGS

Nelson Moczydlower

PETROBRAS

Consulting Committee

- Aldo Narcisi

Brazilian Association for the Development of Industries

- Carlos Buck Pastorisa

Brazilian Association of the Machine and Equip. Industry National Sindicate of the Machine Industry

- Claudio L. Froes Raeder

National Institut of Metrology, Standardization and Quality Control

- David Fischel

Brazilian Association of Industrial Engineering

- Jerzy Lepecki

National Power Co. - ELETROBRAS

- Jose L. de Santana Carvalho

Nuclear Energy National Comission

- Jose Paulo Silveira

Ferderal Secretary of Science and Technology

- Antonio Maciel Neto

Federal Ministry of Economy, Treasury and Planning

- Mario Gilberto Cortopassi

Federation of Industries of the State Sao Paulo

- Nelson Moczydlower

National Oil Co. - PETROBRAS

- Mrs. Luiza Erundina

Mayor of the City of Sao Paulo

- Nelson Peixoto Freire

Brazilian Assoc. of the Electric and Electronic Industries

- Plinio Marcelo Fernandes

Viacao Aerea Riograndense - VARIG S.A.

- Renate Radicella

International Atomic Energy Agency - IAEA

- Roberto Bastos

Brazilian Association of NDT Inspection Companies

- Silvia Mangabeira

Sao Paulo Convention and Visitors Bureau

- Zuhair Warwar

Brazilian Cooperation Agency - Foreign Affairs Ministry

Executive Committee

Alejandro Spoerer

Bernardo V. Camilo Oliveira

Denise Fernandes

Joao Antonio Conte

Jose Florentino Vieira Leal

Marta Loewenstein

Paulo Kulcsar

Ami 11 ton Carvalhal

Carlos Hallai Jr.

Fernando A.P. de S. Leon

Jose Efromovich

Leo Marcelino

Oswaldo Rossi Jr.

Wilson do Amaral Zaitune

Scientific Committee

Akira Sakamoto

Alexandra Saraiva de Mello

Atilio Bruno Veratti

Carlos Soligo Camerini

Cyro Costa Junior

Jose Carlos Paioli

Luiz Batista Muller

Marco Antonio Marchi de Guido

Mohamed Fawzi M. ALi Mogawer

Nelson Jose de Oliveira

Pedro Feres Filho

Renato dos Santos Pereira

Ricardo Tadeu Lopes

Alan Roberto Chambon

Antonio Guilherme Mury

Carlos Gonzalo R. de Cellis

Claudio Soligo Camerini

Jorge Alberto Vianna

Jose Santaella Redorat Jr.

Luis Marcelo Piotto

Milton Mentz

Nazem Nascimento

Paulo P. de Castelo Branco

Raimar Eckard Schmidt

Ricardo de O. Carneval

Wilson do Amaral Zaitune

NDT RELIABILITY - A WAY TO GO

G.M. van Dijka and J. Boogaardb

aKEMA N.V., P.O.Box 9035, 6800 ET ARNHEM (NL)

bDSM Research b.v., P.O.Box 18, 6160 MD GELEEN (NL)

SUMMARY

Proper consideration of NDT reliability can only be achieved if reliability targets are specified in a relevant and achievable manner. A general approach in this respect is being presented taking into account reliability characteristics of NDT inspection systems and different inspection regimes. Limiting values for the applicable reliability characteristics are suggested considering a two class system.

1 INTRODUCTION

Reliability of products determines to a large extent their fitness for use. Inspection as well during manufacture as in service is an important tool to ensure this reliability. Proper inspection calls for a well-balanced inspection programme, i.e. choice of the inspection methods and the scope of inspection, with due attention to the cost factor. There is a growing need to assess these choices quantitativily. This is brought about on the one hand by general quality assurance principles requiring all relevant matters to be documented and traceable. On the other hand, this need is a natural consequence of the growing trend towards product certification, which provides easy-to-use benchmarks for technical product quality and reliability.

Up until now, the selection criteria for inspection methods have been limited to the aspects of sensitivity, procedure and qualification. The aspect of reliability of an inspection method has never been a criterion. In selecting an inspection system, it is well to aim at, and to quantify, the eventual overall effectiveness of the individual inspections. This requires quantification of the inspection reliability also. Although this may complicate the selection process, it offers important advantages to manufacturers, users, licensing authorities and inspection organisations. For licensing authorities, for instance, it provides a better means of appraisal. To manufacturers and users it provides the possibility of choice and optimisation, economic or otherwise. Furthermore, it enables inspection organisations to find economical alternatives by quantifying the value of the individual inspection procedures. An approach based on inspection effectiveness reveals what technical developments are most worthwile.

This presentation aims to illustrate in which way the aspect of reliability can be included in the selection of inspection programmes.

2 INSPECTION

2.1 Objective

Most usually, product properties show significant variations as a result of variations in the material properties, manufacturing process and in-service effects. Inspection aims to minimise the chances of negative excursions in the quality of a finished product through early detection of defects. A general distribution curve for the product quality is shown in Figure 1 (supposing that product quality is inversely proportional to the size of defects).

Figure 1 Probability of product quality value distribution and characteristic values.

In this figure the following characteristic values and their interdependences are important:

Figure 1 shows also the effect of inspection on the eventual product quality distribution. Apparently, in the example depicted here, it is only marginal. The quality is largely determined by the materials and the manufacturing processes employed. Accordingly, inspection will yield only a limited rejection rate. Inspection will gain importance when the product quality distribution changes. This may involve a shift in the average product quality, as shown in Figure 2, because of changes in the manufacturing parameters or deterioration of bare material properties.

Figure 2 Effect on probability distribution curve, due to a decrease in finished product quality.

Inspection will also gain importance with wider spreads in product quality (Figure 3) as may result from, for instance, wider manufacturing tolerances.

Figure 3 Effect on probability distribution curve due to an increase in manufacturing tolerances.

Inspection should be aimed at maintaining and assuring the quality of the product as delivered or retested during service. In actual practice, the defect detection score at the target quality value D often is less than 100% so that the inspection would seem to be inadequate and to fail to meet its objective.

We shall now discuss whether this conclusion is correct and whether it has any fuurther implications.

2.2 Inspection regimes

With inspections for assuring a given specified quality value S broadly two extreme scopes may be distinguished:

Symptom-oriented inspections

Here, inspection is mainly aimed at consistent detection of relevant defects to enable initiation of corrective action. A 100% defect detection score is not necessary. Examples are weld inspections of items that need not meet any specified rational quality values but where, rather, the quality is assessed for good workmanship. Inspections in mass production, usually focussing on process monitoring, fall into this category also. Another example are in-service inspections aimed at detecting not immediately critical degradation phenomena such as corrosion.

Characteristics of the inspections within this scope involve the following aspects:

- A constant detection characteristic. The detection score need not necessarily be 100%. It is essential, however, that the number of nonconformances observed in consecutive inspections truly reflect the actual number of nonconformances to enable appropriate corrective action.

- A low false rejection rate. Many inspection methods involve observation of what are believed to be nonconformances and of nonconformances that are immaterial to the product quality. A high proportion of good products being rejected can be costly and may lead to inappropriate corrective action being taken on false grounds.

- Coverage. The inspection must be well able to detect relevant nonconformances; in other words, specific nonconformances of any significance must not consistently be overlooked.

Product-oriented inspection

Here, the primary objective of inspection is to assure a defined minimum quality level, usually of single products. Examples are in-service inspections of loaded structures for fatigue cracks and inspections during manufacture of the wall thickness of parts impairing strength.

Characteristics of the inspections within this scope involve the following aspects:

- Very high coverage. In other words, the applied inspection system must not consistently overlook any of the relevant nonconformances (e.g. no radiography for crack detection).

- Ideally, the detection score is 100%, even if this entails some rejection of good products.

- A constant detection characteristic is essential for successive in-service inspections so that the observations accurately reveal the degradation trend.

3 RELIABILITY CHARACTERISTICS OF INSPECTIONS

3.1 Detection curve

A typical detection curve is shown in Figure 4. Here, the following parameters are of importance:

Figure 4 Detection curve.

The physical constraints of an inspection method have mainly to do with the lower detection limit (D-ΔD) and the degree of detection DG. The selectivity ΔD and the median defect detection value D can be inflenced by the amount of care exercised in applying the method and by the applied sensitivity of the method (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Effect of sensitivity and care on detection curve.

The effects of these parameters are many and varied.

- The relation between the median defect detection value D and the specified quality value S is important. A high (or tolerant) value will allow too many nonconformancesm to pass whilst a low (or stringent) value will cause erroneous observations.

- A lower detection selectivity (large ΔD) leads to greater uncertainties. Both too much and too little will be dected. In other words: you won’t see the wood for the trees.

- The degree of detection (coverage) DG is a measure of the hiatus in detection capability. Even large defects may go unnoticed under particular circumstances. Here are a few common examples.

* Detection of cracks in thick-walled structures by radiography (because of adverse orientation).

* Detection of crack formation from bolt holes by rotating eddy current examination (smearing and electrical transparency).

* Detection of cracks in weld roots by ultrasonic examination (spurious indications due to weld root shape).

Figure 6 shows example detection curves relating to cracks in aluminium sheet. The differences in degree of detection, median defect detection value, detection limit value and selectivity are significant.

Figure 6 Example detection curves for fatigue cracks in 3.2 mm aluminium sheet using various inspection methods. (UT= ultrasonic; ET= eddy current; RT- radiography; PT= liquid penetrant)

Ideally, the inspection method should provide a high degree of detection DG. Any shortcomings may be overcome by using a complementary method covering the hiatuses of the other. Also, most usually are wanted a high selectivity (low value of ΔD) and a median defect detection value corresponding with the desired specified product quality. Where it is not possible to meet both of these two requirements it is best to ensure adequate detection and subsequent size assessment in relation to the maximum allowed defect size.

3.2 Reliability Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve

The ROC curve in Figure 7 shows the defect detection probability as well as the false detection rate.

Figure 7 Typical ROC curve.

A number of characteristics can be readily identified. Each inspection technique has a characteristic curve such as a or b. The basic performance potential of a technique is indicated by the magnitude of vector K relative to the diagonal (a= high; b=low). Assuming the curve is hyperbolic, the inspection quality may be expressed as

The inspection performance K depends on the suitability of the technique for the particular application as well as on how carefully the method is applied. Inadequate care will lead to increased spread (a low detection fraction and a high false call rate). This is illustrated in Figure 8, showing the difference in inspection quality between skilled and unskilled technicians.

Figure 8 Effect of level of skill on ROC curve for crack detection by eddy current testing.

For a particular inspection technique, the location of the operating point on the curve is determined by the sensitivity setting G, i.e. the median defect detection value. The operating point will be high on the curve with high sensitivities G. In other words, the value of K gives an indication of the performance potential we might expect of a particular inspection technique whilst the sensitivity G defines the actual operating point.

A more practical quantification may be derived from the values P, Q, N and M in Figure 7, where

The following reliability characteristics are of practical relevance here:

False call ratio α = N/P = the ratio of incorrectly and correctly rejected parts.

Success index β = M/Q = the ratio of correctly and incorrectly accepted parts.

Most often, the inspector will aim at a high success index β and a low false call ratio α, corresponding with a higher quality K and optimum sensitivity G. Using α and β rather than K and G makes it easier for the results to be translated to a particular interest. This is becauseα gives a direct indication of what is wrongly rejected while β gives a direct indication of what is rightly accepted. What is more, determination of the numerical values of the inspection quality K and the sensitivity criterion G calls for elaborate testing. The false call ratio α can be directly monitored in practice and can be controlled by changing the sensitivity.

3.3 Consistency

In addition to the characteristics shown by the detection curve and the ROC curve, the consistency C of the applied method is an important quality characteristic. Consistency should here be understood to mean the exchangeability and reproducibility of the results. It relates to each of the characteristics shown in both curves.

Poor consistency will lead to irreproducibility of, or contradictions between, the results obtained by different technicians and/or those obtained at different times. It is especially poor consistency which may lead to feelings of uncertainty among the users of inspection results, so rendering the results meaningless. Also, it hampers and discourages attempts to identify the systematic causes of spread.

4 SELECTION OF INSPECTION SYSTEMS

The aspect of reliability can be included in the selection only if one starts from the relevant quantified requirements. Where no reference values are available, a set of limiting values is suggested as tabulated below. Two sets are given, i.e. one for stringent and the other for moderate reliability.

The limiting values in Table 1 are rather realistic, although somewhat arbitrarily chosen. Important is that values have been defined to enable revealing of the effective inspection quality.

Table 1

Reliability characteristics and limiting values for two categories of effective inspection quality.

(a)The median defect detection value is not really a reliability criterion. Its value should be chosen in relation to the specified quality value S and the nominal product quality F (refer to Figure 1). There mutual relation determines in part the eventual effectiveness of inspection.

(b)The quality index is a relative measure ranging from 0 (poor) to 1 (good). Example: assuming a hyperbolic ROC curve, at an operating point POD =0.9 and FCP =0.1 the value of K of the relative curve is 0.8.

(c)Consistency may be related to either the other characteristics or the sensitivity G.

Example: CG is the consistency related to a difference in sensitivity (i.e G1/G2 = 0.75; 2.5 dB difference) between two different inspections.

Taking into account the 2 limiting values of the 2 categories Table 2 gives possible criteria for both inspection regimes, i.e. symptom-oriented versus product-oriented. The differences in inspection requirements are most apparent from the ROC curve as shown in Figure 9. The example shows that the reliability requirements may provide a valuable tool in selecting inspection techniques and that, if this tool is used, the outcome may be quite different from when it is not.

Table 2

Requirements for both inspection regimes.

Figure 9 Operating areas in the ROC domain.

4.2 Organisation

Basically, organising an inspection system that takes into account the aspect of reliability involves the following elements:

- determination of the basic requirements,

- defining the required inspection or inspections,

- ensuring that the basic requirements are fulfilled.

Figure 10 is a possible organisation chart showing these elements as well as results and sources and their relationships.

Figure 10 Inspection organisation chart.

Basic inspection specification

In defining the basic requirements, we should first of all determine whether the inspection should be symptom- or product-oriented. Once this selection has been made, we may define the required reliability characteristics in the manner shown in Tables 1 and 2. The use of such a requirement format calls for general acceptance of the items tabulated in them, preferable in the form of a standard.

Another basic requirement concerns the detection settings (rejection criteria) to be observed in an inspection. Use may be made of existing product standards or design codes which may provide the product quality values (whether manufacture- or specification-oriented) specified according to the type and size of defects. The basic requirement (i.e. the characteristics and settings) so determined form the basic inspection specification. All this sets out are objectives- without giving any detail as to how the objectives are to be accomplished.

Note: In defining the detection settings, it is essential to specify the type and size of defects. Quite often, in-service inspections will need to focus on a different set of potential defects than with an inspection during manufacture, e.g. fatigue cracks versus fusion defects in welded constructions. Consequently the inspection regimes in both cases will be different.

Inspection procedure

This concerns defining the specific inspection system, i.e. selecting the method(s) and techniques, the procedures, the specification of the criteria for each inspection (i.e. the operating point of the inspection on the ROC curve) and the overall relationships between its elements (combination of methods, inspection interval periods or sampling plan). In this way a detailed and comprehensive inspection specification is obtained. The basic elements for defining the particular system are recommended practices, reference data as well as the selection of parameter settings. All of these elements may be entered into an universal model to predict the reliability characteristics in accordance with the target values set. Other matters that may be entered into such a model are technician qualification, equipment calibrations and the like.

The last element in setting up an inspection system is the validation, i.e. demonstrating that the reliability requirements will, or are likely to be fulfilled. The results of the validation process are stated in a qualification protocol. This, in combination with the inspection specification, forms the inspection procedure. Validation should preferably be based on the analysis according to the model mentioned earlier. A prior agreement may be made for the results of the actual inspection to be included in the validation process.

5 SUMMARY

This paper describes an approach and format which allows selection of inspection systems by defining general objectives regarding detection performance and reliability. As far as the latter is concerned, this calls for an accepted, quantitative inspection requirement format to be laid down. This might be in the form of a standard or a recommended practice.

The format by which the inspection requirements are formulated goes a long way to meeting the needs of all interested parties, i.e. manufacturers, users, licensing authorities and inspection organisations, but at the same time leaves enough room for more flexible application of inspection methods (detailed descriptions of inspection methods detached from purchase specifications and statutory regulations).

The model makes it possible to weigh the added value of a set of mutually complementary inspection methods as well as too assess variations in inspection techniques and, so, to optimise the inspection performance.

ACOUSTICS

RELIABLE SOLUTIONS TO ENGINEERING PROBLEMS IN TESTING THROUGH ACOUSTIC SIGNAL ANALYSIS

Baldev Raj,     Division for PIE and NDT Development, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, Tamilnadu, 603 102, INDIA

Abstract

We have witnessed a spurt in the Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) activities during the recent past. The significant growth in NDE is fuelled by the challenges namely characterisation and testing of new materials, stringent testing and evaluation requirements and demands for the application of NDE to life prediction and intelligent processing of materials. Computer, robotic and sensor technologies coupled with advances in modelling towards understanding of physical interactions of testing medium with material and component, are the prime resources which have helped NDE professionals to meet these challenges. Signal analysis and imaging are the two technologically relevant areas which need to be harnessed extensively for meeting the present and future challenges with confidence on a cost-effective basis. This paper presents a perspective on the significance of signal processing in acoustic methods to solve difficult engineering problems. Specific success stories where signal processing and analysis concepts have enabled the solution or added to the reliability and enhanced sensitivity levels are briefly described. Fertile areas for research and development in signal processing as applied to acoustic NDE methods are identified and highlighted.

1 IMPORTANCE OF SIGNAL ANALYSIS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ACOUSTIC EMISSION AND ULTRASONIC TESTING

Advances in signal processing (SP) were almost exclusively stimulated by the needs of military intelligence and communication, till the recent past. However, there is an urgent need in most of the disciplines and particularly in NDE, for cost-effective, reliable solutions to challenging engineering problems. This necessity is paving the way for the entry of advanced concepts. As the requirements become stringent in terms of sensitivity and acceptability criteria, recourse to signal analysis is only logical, since most of the ‚conventional’ NDE approaches of signal evaluation do not satisfy the demands. Advances in the field of NDE over the last two decades can be traced to the successful exploitation of SP and innovations in signal analysis (SA) concepts.

Signals carry valuable information. Extraction of the desired information hidden in a signal and the presentation of this information, at the appropriate time, in a way that is useful, is a major concern in SA. Poor signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) makes the problem of extracting useful information, formidable and challenging. Digital signal processing and analysis is not only used in situations where SNR is very poor, but also when it is required to take automated decisions, analyse large amounts of data and analyse data in real time. SA is now being applied to nondestructive testing (NDT), not as a complementary technique but as an essential and useful extension of the present test procedures. Indeed, SP and SA are the stepping stones to fully automated systems, expert systems and artificial intelligence for inspection, and intelligent processing of materials.

The advantages of using the appropriate SP techniques in conjunction with the conventional testing techniques are manifold. Apart from repeatability, these open an avenue for compact storage of test data not to mention the added advantage of the possibility for real-time data processing. In the years to come, it is expected that materials and components would be tested and certfied fit, as and when they are manufactured (on-line testing) thus saving precious time and resources. To meet such an objective, SP is destined to play a vital role.

One of the basic pre-requisites for successful application of SA is the availability of a wide variety of sensors and matching instrumentation. Another important requirement is the scientific basis of the concepts chosen for exploitation, vis-a-vis the engineering testing problem being solved. Ultrasonic testing (UT) and acoustic emission testing (AET) are well established techniques and meet these pre-requisites, thus explaining as to why these techniques have benefitted the most from the developments in the use of SP for enabling solutions for engineering problems.

The reasons for slow adaptation of SP and SA procedures in widely practiced NDE are manifold. Firstly, SP requires independent and sophisticated systems, unlike expansion of the existing UT or AET systems. Secondly, such advanced systems are expensive. Thirdly, basic SP techniques by themselves do not solve the problems and may require further analysis and intelligent interpretation. Finally, the established codes and practices used worldwide have not yet supported or made mandatory, the use of these advanced techniques.

It is to be mentioned that all the conventional techniques in NDE rely on time domain data. One of the earliest and most used concept of SA in NDE is the frequency spectrum study. In ultrasonics, it is popularly known as ‘ultrasonic spectroscopy’. Frequency spectrum analysis provides a new dimension to NDE methods. It has in fact opened up the floodgates of NDE signal processing. In order to exploit the frequency spectrum, for real-life evaluation problems, both numerical and pattern analysis have been used. Combination of both time domain and frequency domain approaches have also been developed, for example the split spectrum processing techniques. Cepstral approaches in NDE are very powerful but not widely exploited to get solutions to engineering problems using acoustic methods. Today NDE data is being analysed not only in the time and frequency domains, but also in the amplitude domain, phase domain, cepstral domain, etc., to extract as much information from the signal as possible. B-, C-and P-scan (projection scan), synthetic aperture focussing technique (SAFT) and tomography are smart techniques that present the signals in an easily interpretable manner, thus adding to the usefulness of acoustic NDE methods. Use of digital filters to improve the signal to noise ratio and time series modelling are some of the recent techniques, used in acoustic methods of NDE. Advanced concepts such as the cluster formation and analysis using signal data, and use of features in pattern recognition and analysis, for signal classification purposes are also being increasingly used. Practical demonstration of the concepts of artificial intelligence in the form of expert systems that aid NDE in one way or other, and the use of artificial neural networks for signal detection and characterisation are the tools of state-of-the-art NDE.

The inverse problem in NDE has received little attention. The inverse problem i.e., to model the (acoustic, electric or electromagnetic) wave-material interaction on the basis of the observed features in the signal space such as frequency components, rise time, transfer functions, spectrum broadening, preferential attenuation etc. is a phenomenological investigation, that require extensive mathematical modelling. The present engineering demands for NDE are met with conventional methods of testing coupled with a little SP and SA. Thus, mathematical modelling and phenomenological method of investigations are left to academic levels. NDE is being driven by technological needs and requirements, whereas any phenomenological study is motivated purely by theoretical interests. Intelligent processing of materials and life prediction are the two current research and development areas in NDE, which would increasingly lay emphasis on the use of advanced signal analysis concepts and in establishing phenomenological models to correlate acoustic signals with the microstructures and defects.

2 SUCCESSFUL APPLICATIONS OF SIGNAL ANALYSIS APPROACHES IN ACOUSTIC NDE

A few successful applications of SP and SA for defect detection and characterisation and for enhancing the defect detection sensitivity, are described here. Though not exhaustive, this Section includes both methods developed in the author’s laboratory and those developed elsewhere.

2.1 Maraging and austenitic stainless steel welds - Defect detection and characterisation using pattern and cluster analysis

High sensitivity defect detection and characterisation in weldments of these materials continues to be of sustained interest. This is primarily due to the fact that these weldments are used in large numbers in critical and heavy industry applications. Dendritic (hence anisotropic) microstructures of these weldments, especially in the thickness range of 10 to 40 mm pose problems to ultrasonic testing [1]. Considering these facts, the ASME boiler and pressure vessels code has recommended that in the case of austenitic stainless steel weldments, any defect that is 10% of thickness should be recorded and monitored [2]. However, SA procedures, by using very effective cluster and pattern analysis algorithms have been developed [3], in the author’s laboratory. These enable detection and characterisation of defects downto 1% of weld thickness (14.0 mm weld thickness) in austenitic stainless steel welds. Work on higher thicknesses is in progress. The complexity of this problem is an excellent area for the development of an expert system [3], for offering advice in order to carry out effective NDE on these weldments.

In the case of maraging steel weldments used in the rocket motor casings by the aerospace industry, tight cracks (3 mm × 1 mm) produced by fatigue loading were detected and characterised in the author’s laboratory using similar cluster and pattern analysis principles [4]. Detection of such small defects for this application, enhances the payload capacity of the rocket, resulting in significant economic and technological gains.

In both the above cases, the cluster analysis methods use the crosspower spectrum (between signals from weld noise and those from defects), to obtain cluster elements [3]. The pattern analysis method generates a pattern called the demodulated autocorrelogram (DMAC) pattern from the autocorrelation function of a signal and study its featues [5].

2.2 Characterisation of foreign inclusions in composite material using pattern analysis

Unwanted foreign inclusions find their way into composite materials during their manufacture. It is known that these inclusions affect the load bearing capacity and performance of these materials. Conventional immersion ultrasonic testing is able to detect these inclusions but fails to characterise them into different categories. C-scan imaging techniques have been studied to characterise such foreign inclusions in composite materials [6]. A simple and effective method utilising the DMAC pattern analysis, for the characterisation of these inclusions has been developed [5]. The procedure functions on template matching and thus can be easily automated and offers an excellent way to use neural networks for pattern matching and classification.

2.3 Acoustic emission (AE) signal analysis

Acoustic emission signal analysis has yielded important information in the detection of leaky components under pressure, in pressurised heavy water reactors [7, 8]. In one of the above problems [8], the ratio of the spectral energies present in different bands of the power spectrum of the AE signal, is used in order to detect the leaking component, since the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio was very poor. This is an example where problems due to poor SNR were overcome by appropriate use of SA.

In the NDE of rotating machinery, such as steam turbines and turbine generators, AE is used to detect malfunctions such as rubbing and bearing tilt. In order to detect and transmit AE signals from an operating rotor (to enable on-line processing), a wireless AE monitor has been used, which can detect and transmit AE signals ranging from 50 kHz to 250 kHz [9]. Acoustic emiision parameters such as events, energy values, amplitude distribution, frequency components, skewness and kurtosis values have also been correlated with the ‘health’ of cutting tools, used in lathes [10]. Failure prediction in gearboxes by the processing and analysis of its vibration (rotational) signals have been done with success. It has been concluded that the imminent failure could be predicted accurately using cepstrum analysis [11]. Vibrations in the gear meshings have been monitored to detect failure in gears, where the tooth meshing vibration components and their harmonics are eliminated from the spectrum of the time domain average. The reconstructed time signal shows the presence of defects (if present) which otherwise cannot be seen in the time domain average [12]. This again underlines the importance and usefulness of SA in the field of acoustic testing.

2.4 Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique for defect sizing

When ultrasonic waves encounter a crack like defect, not only reflection but also production of scattered and diffracted waves takes place, over a wide angular range from defect tips. The separation of diffracted waves in space and hence in time directly relate to the size of the defect. By knowing the delays for different waves, it is possible to compute the size and location of the defect.

This technique has been used and the results are found to be in conformity with ASME XI with respect to determination of maximum acceptable defect height and depth of upper and lower edges for internal defects which lie deeper than 30% of the specimen thickness in steel exceeding 12 mm thickness. Again, the results are in conformity with modified ASME XI for all defects in steel exceeding 10 mm thickness [13].

2.5 Synthetic Aperture Focussing Technique (SAFT) for increased resolution

In this procedure, a large aperture focussed probe is synthesized electronically, thereby increasing the fundamental resolution and defect sizing accuracy of the technique. A wide angle compression probe and a point flaw in the specimen is assumed for the purpose of simplicity. When the transducer scans over the specimen, each reflected echo for various scan positions with respect to the position of closest approach of transducer to the flaw, is delayed in time due to the greater distance travelled by ultrasonic waves. If the individual scans are shifted by an amount equal to their predicted time delays, they will come into coincidence with each other and when they are summed, the resultant will be a large amplitude response. If the same procedure is repeated centered around another position, the above time shift compensation does not produce a set of self-coincidence scans which results in a significantly smaller response. The time shifts can be achieved either electronically or digitally using a computer [14]. This technique is an excellent example of the advantages that accrue from the combination of conventional and advanced techniques. Typical applications of this important technique, apart from radar, is the inservice inspection of pressure retaining boundaries for accurate defect