Electrochemical Energy Storage for Renewable Sources and Grid Balancing

Electrochemical Energy Storage for Renewable Sources and Grid Balancing

Editors

Patrick T. Moseley

International Lead Zinc Research Organization, North Carolina, USA

Jürgen Garche

FCBAT, Ulm, Germany

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Contributors

Foreword by Dr. Derek Pooley

Preface

Part I. Introduction - Renewable Energies, Markets and Storage Technology Classification

Chapter 1. The Exploitation of Renewable Sources of Energy for Power Generation

1.1. Energy and Society

1.2. Energy and Electricity

1.3. The Role of Energy Storage

1.4. International Comparisons

1.5. Types and Applications of Energy Storage

1.6. Commercialization of Energy Storage

Chapter 2. Classification of Storage Systems

2.1. Introduction and Motivation

2.2. Flexibility Options

2.3. Different Types of Classifications

2.4. Conclusion

Chapter 3. Challenges of Power Systems

3.1. Power System Requirements

3.2. The Role of Storage Systems for Future Challenges in the Electrical Network

3.3. Demand-Side Management and Other Alternatives to Storage Systems

3.4. Supply of Reserve Power

Chapter 4. Applications and Markets for Grid-Connected Storage Systems

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Frequency Control

4.3. Self-supply

4.4. Uninterruptible Power Supply

4.5. Arbitrage/Energy Trading

4.6. Load Leveling/Peak Shaving

4.7. Other Markets and Applications

Chapter 5. Existing Markets for Storage Systems in Off-Grid Applications

5.1. Different Sources of Renewable Energy

5.2. Impact of the User

Chapter 6. Review of the Need for Storage Capacity Depending on the Share of Renewable Energies

6.1. Introductory Remarks

6.2. Selected Studies with German Focus

6.3. Selected Studies with European Focus

6.4. Discussion of Study Results

6.5. Conclusions

Abbreviations

Part II. Storage Technologies

Chapter 7. Overview of Nonelectrochemical Storage Technologies

7.1. Introduction

7.2. ‘Electrical’ Storage Systems

7.3. ‘Mechanical’ Storage Systems

7.4. ‘Thermoelectric’ Energy Storage

7.5. Storage Technologies at the Concept Stage

7.6. Summary

Chapter 8. Hydrogen Production from Renewable Energies—Electrolyzer Technologies

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Fundamentals of Water Electrolysis

8.3. Alkaline Water Electrolysis

8.4. PEM Water Electrolysis

8.5. High-Temperature Water Electrolysis

8.6. Manufacturers and Developers of Electrolyzers

8.7. Cost Issues

8.8. Summary

Acronyms/Abbreviations

Chapter 9. Large-Scale Hydrogen Energy Storage

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Electrolyzer

9.3. Hydrogen Gas Storage

9.4. Reconversion of the Hydrogen into Electricity

9.5. Cost Issues: Levelized Cost of Energy

9.6. Actual Status and Outlook

Chapter 10. Hydrogen Conversion into Electricity and Thermal Energy by Fuel Cells: Use of H2-Systems and Batteries

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Electrochemical Power Sources

10.3. Hydrogen-Based Energy Storage Systems

10.4. Energy Flow in the Hydrogen Energy Storage System

10.5. Demonstration Projects

10.6. Case Study: A General Energy Storage System Layout for Maximized Use of Renewable Energies

10.7. Case Study of a PV-Based System Minimizing Grid Interaction

10.8. Conclusions

10.9. Summary

Chapter 11. PEM Electrolyzers and PEM Regenerative Fuel Cells Industrial View

11.1. Introduction

11.2. General Technology Description

11.3. Electrical Performance and Lifetime

11.4. Necessary Accessories

11.5. Environmental Issues

11.6. Cost Issues

11.7. Actual Status

11.8. Summary

Chapter 12. Energy Carriers Made from Hydrogen

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Hydrogen Production and Distribution

12.3. Methane

12.4. Methanol

12.5. Dimethyl Ether

12.6. Fischer–Tropsch Synfuels

12.7. Higher Alcohols and Ethers

12.8. Ammonia

12.9. Conclusion and Outlook

Abbreviations

Chapter 13. Energy Storage with Lead–Acid Batteries

13.1. Fundamentals of Lead–Acid Technology

13.2. Electrical Performance and Aging

13.3. Battery Management

13.4. Environmental Issues

13.5. Cost Issues

13.6. Past/Present Applications, Activities and Markets

Acronyms and Initialisms

Symbols

Chapter 14. Nickel–Cadmium and Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery Energy Storage

14.1. Introduction

14.2. Ni-Cd and Ni-MH Technologies

14.3. Electrical Performance and Lifetime and Aging Aspects

14.4. Environmental Considerations

14.5. Actual Status

14.6. Conclusion

Chapter 15. High-Temperature Sodium Batteries for Energy Storage

15.1. Fundamentals of High-Temperature Sodium Battery Technology

15.2. Electrical Performance and Aging

15.3. Battery Management

15.4. Environmental Issues

15.5. Cost Issues

15.6. Current Status

15.7. Concluding Remarks

Acronyms and Initialisms

Symbols and Units

Chapter 16. Lithium Battery Energy Storage: State of the Art Including Lithium–Air and Lithium–Sulfur Systems

16.1. Energy Storage in Lithium Batteries

16.2. Electrical Performance, Lifetime, and Aging

16.3. Accessories

16.4. Environmental Issues

16.5. Cost Issues

16.6. State of the Art

Abbreviations and Symbols

Chapter 17. Redox Flow Batteries

17.1. Introduction

17.2. Flow Battery Chemistries

17.3. Cost Considerations

17.4. Summary and Conclusions

Chapter 18. Metal Storage/Metal Air (Zn, Fe, Al, Mg)

18.1. General Technical Description of the Technology

18.2. Electrical Performance, Lifetime, and Aging Aspects

18.3. Necessary Accessories

18.4. Environmental Issues

18.5. Cost Issues (Today, in 5  years, and in 10  years)

18.6. Actual Status

Chapter 19. Electrochemical Double-layer Capacitors

19.1. Technical Description

19.2. Electrical Performance, Lifetime, and Aging Aspects

19.3. Accessories

19.4. Environmental Issues

19.5. Cost Issues

19.6. Actual Status

Symbols and Units

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Part III. System Aspects

Chapter 20. Battery Management and Battery Diagnostics

20.1. Introduction

20.2. Battery Parameters—Monitoring and Control

20.3. Battery Management of Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems

20.4. Battery Diagnostics

20.5. Implementation of Battery Management and Battery Diagnostics

20.6. Conclusions

Chapter 21. Life Cycle Cost Calculation and Comparison for Different Reference Cases and Market Segments

21.1. Motivation

21.2. Methodology

21.3. Reference Cases

21.4. Example Results

21.5. Sensitivity Analysis

Chapter 22. ‘Double Use’ of Storage Systems

22.1. Introduction

22.2. Uninterruptible Power Supply Systems

22.3. Electric Vehicle Batteries—Vehicle to Grid

22.4. Photovoltaic Home Storage

22.5. Second Life of Vehicle Batteries

Index

Copyright

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Contributors

Peter Adelmann,     Institute for decentralized Electrification (id-eee); University of Applied Science Ulm, Germany

Hajime Arai,     Office of Society-Academia Collaboration for Innovation, Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Japan

Patrick Bernard,     SAFT, Bordeaux, France

Tobias Blank

Institute for Power Electronics and Electrical Drives (ISEA), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Institute for Power Generation and Storage Systems (PGS), E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, JARA Energy, Deutschland, Germany

Petar Djinović

Department of Heterogeneous Catalysis, Max Planck Institut für Kohlenforschung, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany

Laboratory for Environmental Science and Engineering, National Institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia

Bert Droste-Franke,     EA European Academy of Technology and Innovation Assessment GmbH, Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler, Germany

Georg Fuchs

Institute for Power Generation and Storage Systems (PGS), E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, JARA Energy, Deutschland, Germany

Jürgen Garche,     FCBAT, Ulm, Germany

Alexander Gitis

Institute for Power Electronics and Electrical Drives (ISEA), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Institute for Power Generation and Storage Systems (PGS), E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, JARA Energy, Deutschland, Germany

Ludwig Jörissen,     Zentrum für Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden-Württemberg, Ulm, Germany

Ulf Kasper,     Institute of Power Systems and Power Economics, RWTH Aachen University, Germany

Angel Kirchev,     Laboratory for Electrochemical Storage, French Atomic and Alternative Energy Commission (CEA-LITEN), Le Bourget du Lac, France

Peter Kurzweil,     Electrochemistry Laboratory, University of Applied Sciences, Amberg, Germany

Matthias Leuthold

Institute for Power Generation and Storage Systems (PGS), E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, JARA Energy, Deutschland, Germany

Michael Lippert,     SAFT, Bagnolet, France

Benedikt Lunz

Institute for Power Electronics and Electrical Drives (ISEA), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, JARA Energy, Deutschland, Germany

Dirk Magnor

Institute for Power Electronics and Electrical Drives (ISEA), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, JARA Energy, Deutschland, Germany

Cortney Mittelsteadt,     Giner, Inc. Newton, MA, USA

Patrick T. Moseley,     International Lead Zinc Research Organization, NC, USA

Albert Moser,     Institute of Power Systems and Power Economics, RWTH Aachen University, Germany

Tim Norman,     Giner, Inc. Newton, MA, USA

Emile Tabu Ojong,     Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Freiburg, Germany

Anthony Price,     Swanbarton Limited, Pinkney, Wiltshire, UK

David A.J. Rand,     CSIRO Energy Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Meagan Rich,     Giner, Inc. Newton, MA, USA

Dirk Uwe Sauer

Institute for Power Electronics and Electrical Drives (ISEA), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Institute for Power Generation and Storage Systems (PGS), E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, JARA Energy, Deutschland, Germany

Andreas Schäfer,     Institute of Power Systems and Power Economics, RWTH Aachen University, Germany

Henning Schuster,     Institute of Power Systems and Power Economics, RWTH Aachen University, Germany

Ferdi Schüth,     Department of Heterogeneous Catalysis, Max Planck Institut für Kohlenforschung, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany

Maria Skyllas-Kazacos,     School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Tom Smolinka,     Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Freiburg, Germany

Mike Steilen,     Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V.Institut für Technische Thermodynamik, Pfaffenwaldring,Stuttgart, Germany

Tjark Thien

Institute for Power Electronics and Electrical Drives (ISEA), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Institute for Power Generation and Storage Systems (PGS), E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, JARA Energy, Deutschland, Germany

Gerd Tomazic,     Battery Consultant, Muerzzuschlag-Austria

Jason Willey,     Giner, Inc. Newton, MA, USA

Erik Wolf,     Siemens AG

Foreword by Dr. Derek Pooley†

Electrochemical Energy Storage is already big business, but it will grow dramatically if the technology can be sufficiently improved—or its costs can be reduced sufficiently—or novel ways can be found of using it. The driving force is the inexorable rise of electricity in powering modern life.

Electricity is an ideal bulk-energy vector in almost all respects, already crucial for twenty-first century life. It provides lighting, heating, cooling, ventilation, mechanical power and is essential for all the modern tools of information, communications, and entertainment. It can be moved easily over long distances with relatively little loss. It is always perfectly clean at the point of use. The end-use equipment is usually compact, quiet, and cheap to manufacture. Freezers and cookers, washing machines and dish washers, TVs and computers, machine tools and hedge-trimmers, trains and cars; the list of its uses is endless. If earlier ages of mankind were best characterized by the materials we used for our tools, the stone age, bronze age, iron age etc., then our age is the power-tool age, and our tools are powered mostly by electricity.

Moreover, electricity will have to extend its reach much further and become even more important if our society is to save planet Earth from the climate-changing consequences of burning too many of our fossil energy resources too quickly. This is because almost all the ‘alternative’ energy supply technologies, that is, alternative to fossil fuels, which may allow us to ‘decarbonize’ our energy supply system and mitigate artificial global warming, are electricity-producing. Nuclear power, wind, solar, wave, tidal and other ocean energies, coal combustion with CO2 capture and sequestration are all basically electricity producers. There can be no doubt that electricity must become even more important in the future than it is now.

But electricity has a major Achilles' heel, the difficulty of storing it, which makes coping with any variability of demand and supply a major task in any electricity-driven economy. Demand has always varied with the patterns of daily living. Now supply is becoming inherently variable too, because of the natural variability of wind, solar etc., and at the same time becoming inherently less flexible, as nuclear power generation and complex fossil cycles such as clean coal with carbon sequestration replace simple fossil generation. Currently, the electricity grids of most advanced countries deal with variability via the so-called dispatchable generators, which can easily be turned up or down, or on and off. They are mostly fossil-fuelled, so that dealing with variability effectively ‘locks’ fossil-fuelled generators into our electricity infrastructure. More use of electricity storage technologies would allow us to reduce net variability, make better use of new generator technologies, lessen fossil fuel dependence, and bring enormous benefits.

The simplest (and already-widely used) way to store bulk electricity is with hydro power, especially pumped hydro, but gravity is a very weak force of nature and storing bulk electricity this way requires large volumes of water to be pumped through, or held at, large differences in height. This can be achieved only in mountainous terrain but even countries with mountains are often severely limited in the number of good hydro sites they can use.

In contrast, the chemical-bond forces involved in electrochemistry are inherently much more powerful than gravity and it seems obvious that electrochemical energy storage should be used as well as hydro power to store bulk electricity, especially in countries without mountains. Electrochemical storage can also be local, perhaps linked to solar photovoltaic arrays installed on the roofs of individual houses. Moreover electrochemical energy storage, via batteries or hydrogen production, might also allow decarbonising much of our transport energy use as well and although road transport's contribution to CO2 emissions is only half that of electricity generation, it is still very significant.

Unfortunately, today's batteries have many and varied imperfections of their own. Stored energy to weight and/or cost ratios are frequently too small. Very fast charging is usually difficult. Deliverable power to stored-energy ratios are not sufficient for many applications. The limit on the number of charge/discharge cycles, after which the battery performance is too seriously degraded for further use, is often too small for daily usage cycles. Batteries are wonderful for flashlights and tablet computers but not yet a panacea for bulk electricity storage.

Other forms of electrochemical energy storage, such as the manufacture of hydrogen or methane, also have their own problems, especially for small-scale or mobile use. The storage of hydrogen is basically difficult. Its efficient use requires fuel cells that are still much too expensive for widespread use, not least because very-expensive platinum is often needed for the catalysts essential to their operation.

Although the title of Patrick Moseley and Jürgen Garche's book is electrochemical energy storage, it does recognize possible competition: pumped hydro, flywheels, thermo-electric, magnetic and compressed gas energy storage, etc. As Chapter 7 says, the number of possible storage technology concepts is nearly infinite. The book also covers potential markets, in particular the increased need for storage coming from the massive investment in renewable energy sources.

Electrochemical energy storage is without doubt a potential gold mine, but only for those technologists and entrepreneurs who can think or invent their way round the problems that currently limit its widespread use for bulk energy storage. Moseley and Garche's book is an information mine for those technologists and entrepreneurs—and for potential users—of where the technologies stand and how they currently fit the applications foreseen for them.

In fact, Moseley and Garche have written only some of the book themselves. In addition they have persuaded a large number of experts to write about their own fields, which has the advantage of including what real experts have to say but inevitably results in a tremendous variety of styles and approaches. Although written in English, the expertise and experience deployed are almost exclusively from Germany; not surprising given the German determination to decarbonize its economy and the constraints imposed—and self-imposed—on their energy system.

Dr. Derek Pooley

08/05/2014

† Dr Derek Pooley, CBE FInstP, is now retired after some 15  years working as an independent consultant on nuclear and other energy technologies, which followed some 35  years working full-time in energy and materials technologies. His appointments included chief executive of the UK Atomic Energy Authority, chief scientist at the UK Department of Energy, chairman of (Radioactive) Waste Management Technology Ltd, chairman of the European Union Nuclear Scientific and Technical Committee, president of the British Nuclear Energy Society (now the UK Nuclear Institute), and member of the European Union's Advisory Group on Energy.

Preface

Patterns of electricity generation and use are changing markedly during the early part of the twenty-first century. Driven by concerns over global warming, governments and corporations around the world are beginning to shift away from generating plant that depends on fossil fuels towards a ‘sustainable’ future based on renewable (sun, wind, hydro-power, etc.), and in some cases nuclear, energy. The changing nature of the primary generating equipment brings with it a need to cope with fluctuations in supply that can only be managed with the aid of some form of energy storage. There are a wide variety of applications in view ranging from large-scale supply-side plant that can help to cope with frequency control, load leveling, and arbitrage, to small demand-side systems that assist the use of solar energy that is harvested in the user's own home. Simultaneously there are many ways that energy can be stored, including engineering options that make use of physical properties (compressed air, flywheels, superconducting magnetic energy storage, etc.) and electrochemical storage.

This book is a multi-author work and chapter subjects have been selected to cover the full range of requirements and options for energy storage in future schemes for generating and using electrical energy in an environmentally friendly manner. The principal focus is on electrochemical methods of energy storage including batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors although some consideration is also briefly given to the nonelectrochemical methods mentioned above. Many examples of schemes in action, or planned, are taken from Germany, which has probably the most advanced plans of all the major industrial nations for the introduction of renewable energies into its inventory of electricity generating plant. Individual chapters are intended to be stand-alone and, since they do relate to one central theme, a small amount of subject overlap has been unavoidable. In particular, the role of storage as the key to enable the introduction of renewable sources of energy to be effective is stressed.

The exploitation of hydrogen as an energy storage vector is dealt with in three chapters that cover the following three subtopics: hydrogen generation, hydrogen storage, and hydrogen conversion. The hydrogen system is considered from both the R&D and the industrial viewpoints and, again, there is a small amount of overlap between chapters at the boundaries of the subtopics.

Patrick T. Moseley,  and Jürgen Garche

Part I

Introduction - Renewable Energies, Markets and Storage Technology Classification

Outline

Chapter 1. The Exploitation of Renewable Sources of Energy for Power Generation

Chapter 2. Classification of Storage Systems

Chapter 3. Challenges of Power Systems

Chapter 4. Applications and Markets for Grid-Connected Storage Systems

Chapter 5. Existing Markets for Storage Systems in Off-Grid Applications

Chapter 6. Review of the Need for Storage Capacity Depending on the Share of Renewable Energies

Chapter 1

The Exploitation of Renewable Sources of Energy for Power Generation

Anthony Price     Swanbarton Limited, Pinkney, Wiltshire, UK

Abstract

The social and political factors affecting the transition to a sustainable economy through the use of renewable energy are examined. The method of operation of a conventional power system is described in order to provide the context for the integration of renewable energy generation into the power system. Characteristics of different energy storage technologies are described and some novel types of storage are introduced.

Keywords

Energiewende; Energy policy; Energy storage technologies; Power system operation

Chapter Outline

1.1 Energy and Society 3

1.2 Energy and Electricity 4

1.2.1 Power System History and Operation 4

1.2.2 Electricity Generation 5

1.2.3 Power Systems Operation 5

1.2.4 Integration of Renewable Energy into Power Networks 5

1.3 The Role of Energy Storage 7

1.4 International Comparisons 8

1.5 Types and Applications of Energy Storage 9

1.5.1 Thermal Energy Storage 9

1.5.2 Hydrogen Energy Storage as an Energy Vector 9

1.5.3 Compressed Air Energy Storage 9

1.5.4 Mechanical Systems 9

1.5.5 Novel Electrochemical Storage 11

1.6 Commercialization of Energy Storage 11

References 11

1.1. Energy and Society

Energy is now one of the leading topics for debate and discussion at all levels of society. Water, food, and energy are fundamental to the well-being of society, and without secure, sustainable and economic energy, much of modern civilization would fail. Energy supply has evolved continuously; fuels have changed from wood, to coal, oil, and gas and now include biomass. Man has harnessed the power of the sun for drying, baking, and electricity generation; the power of wind to turn sails of windmills; and the power water to rotate waterwheels and tidal turbines.

The German nongovernment organization (NGO), Öko-Institut, founded in 1977 and focusing on nuclear power and climate change, coined the phrase Energiewende in the title of the book Energiewende – Wachstum und Wohlstand ohne Erdöl und Uran [1] – (‘Energiewende – Growth and Prosperity without Oil and Uranium’).

Energiewende is a single word that expresses a concept that takes at least a whole sentence in English. Although it is often translated as ‘energy transition,’ Energiewende is much more than this, covering the transformation of the whole energy generation, transmission, and delivery network from nationally based power systems reliant on fossil fuels and nuclear plant to a decentralized grid relying entirely on renewable energy. It is appropriate to use the German word here because Germany is probably the most advanced of the major industrial nations in planning for a transition to a sustainable economy by means of renewable energy, energy efficiency, and sustainable development. The short-term 20% targets that were originally set are not ambitious enough; Energiewende encompasses a revolution in the generation and consumption of electric power.

It is not universally accepted that a decentralized European grid is the way to achieve the Energiewende target as many proposers want to achieve the target through a Super-Grid, based on exporting electricity produced from solar power from North Africa. Nevertheless, the Energiewende concept does mean an increased reliance on renewable energy and increasing emphasis on economic, social, political, and ecological change.

The story of Energiewende must include reference to the global debate on climate change. The development of the debate from the 1980s has led to many governments, NGOs, think tanks, and individuals articulating potential solutions to the emerging problem. Governments tended to focus on the establishment of international institutions such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [2] and the collection of more data.

The concept of a total energy revolution remained on the fringes of world politics until relatively recently. However, a significant minority (and in some countries, a majority) take a different stance on the need to develop sustainable energy policies. In a 2010 Gallup Poll only 50% of the sample of American respondents said that global warming was the result of human causes or human and natural causes combined, compared to 88% of Japanese, 75% of Chinese, and 70% of Russians [3]. Even so, the idea that carbon emissions should be cut is now an accepted policy across most of the developed world. However, most current sustainable energy policies are aimed at more conservative targets than the proponents of Energiewende are prepared to accept [4].

Nevertheless, apart from a consideration of climate change, it should be noted that reliance on primary energy sources such as coal, oil, and gas is a profligate use of the Earth's limited natural resources. True sustainability targets will take into account the most appropriate policy for the use of these essential resources and their preservation for future generations.

A moratorium on the use of nuclear power is as important to the original concept of Energiewende as the reduction in the use of fossil fuels, but up until early 2011, most of the world's political community generally remained committed to nuclear energy as one of the pillars supporting the transition to a low-carbon economy. Even after the Fukushima nuclear disaster and the subsequent shutdown of all reactors in Germany there is still a lively public debate on the future of nuclear power in the rest of the world [5]. Recent commitments by the British Government to guarantee a financial return for investors in nuclear power were made on the basis that nuclear energy is a low producer of CO2 and therefore should be supported in a similar way to other low-CO2-producing technologies [6].

Efforts are now widespread to find alternative and sustainable means of powering transport. Significant investments have been made to persuade users to switch from petrol or diesel cars and trucks to more environment-friendly alternatives [7]. The current focus on battery technology and electric power trains means that the makeup of electricity generation becomes ever more important as we rely on increased use of electricity, generated ideally from sustainable or renewable resources.

The reason for these changes is not only political but also economic. Oil prices have tended to rise more than inflation and today represent an increasing burden to motorists and energy consumers at home and in industry. Renewable alternatives offer the prospect of very low production costs for a higher initial investment. With low interest rates across the developed world and high oil prices, the incentive has never been greater. Indeed, most expect these incentives to grow with investment costs falling and fossil fuel prices rising. In a recent study, Boston Consulting Group estimated that even without any government incentives customers in Western Europe could expect a payback period of 9  years if they bought an electric vehicle over a conventionally fueled vehicle in 2020 (this period fell to a single year if government incentives were included) [8].

A combination of rising fuel costs, technical improvement of renewable alternatives, low interest rates, and government incentives can create an attractive economic climate in which to invest in alternative energy. But some of the optimism for the long-term health of the alternative energy industry is beginning to wane, as politicians discover the costs of subsidies for renewable energy and the unintended costs of integrating renewable energy onto the grid.

In order for Energiewende to succeed, these political and economic changes need to be sustained and accelerated. However, the technical challenges which are associated with the revolution in electrical energy generation also need to be addressed—including two significant and concurrent transformations: changing centralized grids to distributed grids and changing from predictable and controllable generation to a generation system based on variable renewable production. This is a complete transformation of the way that we consider energy, and in particular, the way that we consider electricity.

1.2. Energy and Electricity

Electricity is one of the most useful energy vectors. It can be generated at relatively low cost from a number of sources, moved short and long distances, at high and low power, and has a wide range of applications from lighting, heating, and communications, to transport and industry. But unlike other energy vectors, such as oil or gas, or even hydrogen, it is not readily stored. Nevertheless, the utility of electricity is high and it is one vector that can be produced from a variety of sources, thereby supporting the decarbonization of other energy processes. Transport, for example, traditionally powered by oil products, is being decarbonized by conversion to electricity, as in the electrification of railways and urban rail systems as well as the increase in electric cars and buses and electrically powered ships and barges. In addition, as the electricity sector grows, with increased renewable generation, the heat sector is expected to change from oil and solid fuel sources toward electrical heating and storage.

1.2.1. Power System History and Operation

The earliest days of the power industry were dominated by the role of electrochemical energy storage. Lead–acid accumulators were widely used to provide the quiet night-time load thereby allowing the generating sets to be shut down for maintenance or to economize on fuel. In some systems the mode of operation was night-time charging to provide a minimum load for the generators [9]. The use of battery storage was intimately linked to the use of DC systems, but when AC systems became widespread, it became more difficult to use DC storage systems because of the expense of AC/DC power conversion, and the use of batteries in distribution networks faded.

1.2.2. Electricity Generation

The majority of today's power systems are based on technologies such as coal, nuclear- and gas-fired generators with a growing contribution from renewable energy systems such as hydropower, wind power, and solar power. Hydro generation can be grouped into three broad categories, run of the river, high dam hydro (with an inherent storage capacity), and pumped hydro. The latter two are usually dispatchable, that is their output can be varied to meet the demands of the system. Pumped hydro storage allows a two-way transfer of energy; energy can be withdrawn from the upper reservoir, and also replaced, when there is a surplus of energy on the network.

1.2.3. Power Systems Operation

AC power systems must be kept in balance between the supply and the demand; otherwise the system becomes unstable with the consequence of failure leading to potentially severe economic and technical effects. If there is a loss of generation, the frequency begins to fall and, if this is not stabilized, a further drop in frequency results in either partial disconnections of load or a cascading total failure of the system as the generating plant disconnects. The supply may be less than the demand because a generating station has stopped production, demand suddenly rises, or a supply transmission or distribution line has failed.

An alternative, but equally serious, scenario occurs when the supply exceeds demand and the excess generation causes the frequency to rise, and voltage to increase. Action must then be taken either to absorb the extra power or to disconnect the power supply before damage occurs. Accordingly a power system operator may use one or more methods to ensure stability, such as restricting the output of some generators to ensure that there is flexibility to increase or reduce output to meet changing demands, operating reserve plant (sometimes known as spinning reserve) so that it can be called in to service at short notice, or managing demand through voluntary or enforced disconnections. An opportunity exists to use electrical energy storage as a means of absorbing surplus power and discharging power when reserves are required.

For many years, pumped hydro storage has been used in this role. Water can be released from the upper reservoir of pumped hydro plants at short notice, and reserves in the order of hundreds of megawatts can be called at short notice. Alternatives, such as diesel engines or gas turbines, can be started within minutes, or less, in order to provide additional support to the power system, albeit with an associated consumption of hydrocarbon-based fuel.

1.2.4. Integration of Renewable Energy into Power Networks

Generation from renewable sources, such as wind power or solar power, is variable in its output. While averaging the output from a number of devices across the system can reduce some of the fluctuations in total output, leading to a flatter generation output, significant changes in production do occur as a result of the fluctuating output from renewable sources.

With low penetrations of wind power, such variations can be managed with the inherent flexibility of the other generating plant on the system. However, as the proportion of wind power increases, there will be occasions when nearly all the demand is being met by a combination of wind power and inflexible generating plant. In order to match even small changes in production, either conventional fossil-fired plant must be used to provide this flexible reserve or some other actions are required. A power system consisting of clean renewable energy thereby becomes reliant on the support of additional fossil-fired generation.

Currently, this is not a big problem—the contribution is small enough that conventional sources can fill the hole. But when 39% of energy generation is from wind [10] the current solutions simply will not work. Another important consideration is that of overgeneration. If, as the current Energiewende targets suggest, 39% of energy over a year is to come from wind generation, then peak output (and total power capacity) will be far above this figure. On a very windy day (or more problematically—night) total generation may be far above what is required. Solar generation has a similar effect at times of peak output and low demand.

In fact there are three separate problems concerning an increased penetration of renewable energy: short-term fluctuations, medium-term fluctuations, and network congestion.

Fluctuations in power output occur in power systems with a high proportion of wind power and also solar photovoltaic (PV) generation. Cloud cover can cause rapid ramp-up and ramp-down events as demonstrated in Figure 1.1 using data from sites in Colorado [11].

The mechanical inertia in wind turbines reduces the rate of change of output seen with solar PV, but wind generation is notoriously unpredictable on an hour-by-hour, day-by-day basis as amply demonstrated in Figure 1.2 from California where each line represents wind power production for each day in May 2005 [12]. Furthermore, wind turbines have overspeed limiters installed, which curtail generation during the highest wind speeds, resulting in a sudden drop in wind power output. While this may not occur frequently, it presents another requirement for power system balancing for the power system operator.

FIGURE 1.1  The 1-min variability of solar radiation at a measurement site at the solar radiation research laboratory, Colorado.

FIGURE 1.2  Daily power output variation from a wind energy source (Integration of renewable resources, operational requirements and generation fleet capability at 20% RPS, CAISO (California independent system operator), August 31, 2010.)

The majority of electricity demand is noncontrollable—consumers tend to turn appliances on and off according to their instantaneous demands, and small-scale generation such as from PV systems, generates power only according to the local weather conditions. For small penetrations of renewable energy this is not a significant issue, but when penetration of renewables rises to a critical level, problems arise. In the case that a whole street is equipped with solar PV panels, the local circumstance is that at certain times of the day, the street will be a net exporter of power, while during the hours of darkness, the street returns to being a net importer of power. This is in addition to any effects caused by rapid changes in solar irradiance. The impact of solar PV generation with a high penetration on a low-voltage feeder can be significant, and has serious implications for the control of the local network, impacting on voltage levels, and even the loads on separate phases from the local transformer outputs [13].

The solutions to these problems will be expensive and unpopular wastage of energy and excess capacity, expensive and unpopular reliability problems, or a new technical solution or solutions with associated market reform that may or may not be expensive and unpopular.

A total move away from hydrocarbon-based energy sources will require a substantial shift in the method of operation of the power system—leading to a debate as to what happens when there is insufficient wind or solar power to meet demand. This transition reflects the change in outlook toward electricity as an energy source. Previously, electrical power production was increased to meet anticipated demand; as demand varies, production varies, often in a predictable daily or weekly cycle. However, the widespread adoption of renewable energy means that if the majority of electricity production is from variable resources, and we wish to reduce the amount of load balancing from conventional plant, then demand must now follow generation. This change of mind-set has implications for the whole electricity and energy sectors.

1.3. The Role of Energy Storage

Low-cost, reliable, and efficient methods to store energy would of course constitute a valuable addition to a network with a high penetration of renewable generation. Storage must be considered alongside a range of solutions to the challenges presented by ‘renewables.’ Each network will have its own characteristics depending on the demand profile and the makeup of generating resources. For example, a network in a region such as California, with a high demand from air-conditioners and high levels of solar PV penetration, will have a different demand and generation profile to that in Denmark which relies more on wind power and has a higher demand from electric heating.

Arrangements already exist for the balancing of the network in the very short run, measured in seconds, through frequency regulation contracts or, primary, secondary, and tertiary control. Since the market already exists for these contracts the main challenge to its introduction would be technical.

In theory, frequency regulation could be an important function for batteries and other fast-acting electrical energy storage options. Such devices would, however, be competing against existing generators, which are running at slightly below their maximum capacity and are thus able to ramp-up rapidly to provide additional generation. A storage device can perform a similar duty, and is also able to absorb energy to deal with overfrequency. However, the cycle life of the storage device could be critical as it would have to charge and discharge many times per hour in some applications.

In the Energiewende scenario, there may be fewer operators able to vary output and therefore take on frequency control and other reserves.

Recently, there has been considerable research undertaken into the role of demand response or demand-side management arrangements. Many of these contracts are already in place with industrial or large commercial customers who are able to cut and/or increase demand on a signal from the network operator. In theory, this market would open up to household consumers of electricity in the event of a widespread adoption of smart grid technology but there is, as yet, insufficient evidence to suggest that widespread reliance on this technology at the domestic level will be successful.

A decentralized grid was an original cornerstone of Energiewende, and it is clear that an interconnection with other systems not only reduces the risk of a system-wide failure but also expands competition in reserve markets. Although interconnections can be used to mitigate risks from large weather systems affecting renewable plant across an entire territory, even with large dispersals in plant there is still a risk of a systemic failure of renewable generation. There remains considerable debate on this matter, with some advocating interconnection as a solution to the problem, while others preferring to rely on local systems with distributed storage and to have the additional system resilience provided by microgrids. Experience has shown that major disturbances on the power network are caused by unpredicted events or combinations of events and both interconnections and local system methods such as balancing generation or storage will be required.

Over a longer time frame there are opportunities for arbitrage (the practice of taking advantage of a price difference between two or more energy markets) but on an average day the market differences are currently not profitable enough to warrant a large-scale introduction of electrical energy storage devices for this purpose. For example, in the New York Independent System Operator region, the mean differential in spot prices on a single day was $75.92/MWh [14]. Given the current prices of electrochemical electrical energy storage (over $500,000/MWh), the payback period on a system designed just to participate in the arbitrage market would be unacceptably long unless spot price volatility were to increase or energy storage prices were to decline.

Transmission and distribution upgrade deferral also provides market opportunities for storage. Alternatives, such as diesel-generating sets, or the upgrade itself, are expensive propositions. A storage device designed to reduce congestion at substations (expected to become more intense as a result of fast charging electric vehicles and distributed generation) can also participate in the arbitrage or even the reserve market. In fact, by reducing the congestion at peak times it will be acting in the arbitrage market by default. It is no surprise, then, that many emerging storage providers are specifically targeting this market and colocating their pilot projects with substations.

Power companies and network companies will have to address these technical challenges regardless of whether Energiewende or the current government goals prevail. Nearly all countries have plans to increase the share of renewables in electricity generation (and in most cases heating and other forms of energy too).

1.4. International Comparisons

Each country in the European Union has its own targets when it comes to greenhouse gas emissions and hence different intentions regarding renewable power (see Figure 1.3). The more developed members of the European Union generally aim for 10–20% reductions by 2020.

The use of biomass remains dominant in the heating sector but there will undoubtedly be increasing penetration of intermittent renewables in the electricity generation mix in order to meet the targets set out by the European Union and national governments leading to increasing problems of the type discussed above.

In the United States, each state has its own target for renewable energy and each energy network will face its own problems and solutions. Of the 57 territories monitored by the Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency, 43 have renewable energy targets varying between 10% and 33% of generation by 2020 [15].

The actions of China, India, and the developing world will be very important. China's most recent 5-year plan calls for renewable energy to make up 9.5% of the total energy consumption by 2015 with most coming from hydropower and wind power [16]. India plans to have 53  GW of renewable energy installed by 2017 [17] and a loose target of 15% of energy generation from renewable sources by 2020 [18].

In other parts of the world, where there is no stable network, the energy mix will be determined by the economics of renewable and distributed energy as opposed to centralized energy networks. It may be possible for developing nations to ‘leapfrog’ existing technology such as national grids and advance directly to renewable and distributed energy solutions. In areas with weak central government or areas where it is difficult to raise large amounts of cash to finance large capital projects, it may be preferable to establish networks with a focus on distributed generation which could be focused on renewable energy, although it may be the case that coal, oil, and gas will be seen as the cheaper and more reliable method of generating electricity.

We are moving closer to the Energiewende vision. However, achieving the complete energy revolution will require another large shift in political attitudes, economic realities, and technical solutions. Electrical energy storage will be a major part of this.

FIGURE 1.3  Target levels of renewable energy incorporation for different countries within the European Union. (Key figures, market observatory for energy, european commission, june 2011, p.28.)

1.5. Types and Applications of Energy Storage

This book presents an analysis of the options for the use of electrochemical energy storage in power systems, with particular reference to those technologies that support the deployment or integration of renewable resources. A variety of different storage technologies in many configurations will be required. At the largest size, traditionally dominated by pumped hydro, applications for storage are to provide energy balancing, frequency control, and reserves. At sizes in the single megawatt to tens of megawatt range, applications also include frequency control, local energy balancing, energy trading, as well as network asset optimization. At smaller sizes, where electricity storage is embedded in the distribution networks, storage can be used to optimize a customer's own electricity production (from solar PV, for example), to mitigate the effects of voltage rise, to protect a consumer against price spikes due to adverse time-of-day pricing, as well as to reduce the peak load on critical distribution equipment, such as by deferring the installation of new overhead lines or underground cables.

The opportunity is not only for electrochemical resources but also for other emerging technologies. The increase in renewable energy development has led to an increase in consideration of both electrical and nonelectrical energy storage concepts and technologies. This book is concerned with electrochemical energy storage, that is the branch of energy storage that takes electricity, converts electrical energy into electrochemical potential energy, and then reverses the process to electricity.

1.5.1. Thermal Energy Storage

Any conversion of energy from one form to another is by definition inefficient. There are therefore a range of storage technologies that can omit one energy conversion process and therefore raise the efficiency of the storage cycle. For example, there are many active projects that use grid electricity, typically generated at night (when wind speeds are high and electrical demand is low) to heat water in domestic water cylinders using a conventional immersion heater. The heat energy is stored, as the tank is well insulated, and the hot water is drawn off later in the day or the week, instead of the water being heated on demand. This provides a very low-cost way for a supplier of electricity to be able to modulate the output from renewable resources to match demand (especially if remote switching can be applied to the consumers' hot water cylinders). The significant difference between this and domestic-scale battery energy storage is that the stored energy cannot be recovered as electricity.

1.5.2. Hydrogen Energy Storage as an Energy Vector

Hydrogen can be considered not only as an electrochemical storage medium but also as an energy vector in its own right. Some analyses predict surpluses of electrical production that will be of such sufficient magnitude that it will be necessary to convert the electricity into hydrogen and then into synthetic hydrocarbons as there will not be enough electricity demand at peak to absorb the resultant stored energy. Moving electricity into the gas vector effectively allows for decarbonization of the natural gas network.

1.5.3. Compressed Air Energy Storage

Other technologies include compressed air, not only based on large cavern storage but also on new developments including above-ground air storage in pipelines or steel vessels, and derivatives based on new or improved thermodynamic cycles such as adiabatic and isothermal compression. There are also proposals, now at the laboratory investigation stage, to consider the use of subsea air bags as low-cost air containment.

Other thermodynamic cycles can also be considered as shown by the example of a system based on the liquefaction of air or nitrogen, and storing the energy as a cryogen, which has now been tested at the submegawatt scale, and larger demonstration projects are expected soon [19] (Figure 1.4).

Other thermodynamic cycles under consideration include pumped heat energy storage. Using a working fluid of argon and heat reservoirs based on gravel or other low-cost minerals, a reciprocating heat engine is used to convert electricity into heat, and vice versa, with the advantage of low-cost storage capacity. A demonstration plant of 1.4  MW is planned for construction in the United Kingdom by 2015 (Figure 1.5).

1.5.4. Mechanical Systems

Mechanical systems offer the potential for long lifetimes, and this is a significant factor when considering the average lifetime cost of a plant. Increasing the lifetime of a storage system from 15 to 25 or even 40  years makes a significant reduction in the annualized cost of operating the plant, and can mitigate against the lower round trip efficiencies offered by some mechanical technologies.

Flywheels have been used as a viable energy storage technology since the days of the industrial revolution, and for many years, flywheels have been an important component of uninterruptible power systems. The conventional classification of flywheels is to separate them into low-speed and high-speed systems; the speed of rotation usually dictates the materials of construction with composites favored for high-speed machines. The general principle is that flywheels are high power, but low energy, in other words suitable for discharge times of seconds to minutes. Recently, several developers have indicated progress toward flywheel systems with a higher energy-to-power ratio, leading toward discharge durations of tens of minutes to hours. Such systems could be sized favorably to meet the requirements of domestic or small commercial installations, with power ratings of 5–10  kW and energy content of up to 10  kWh [20].

FIGURE 1.4  Schematic of cryogenic energy storage system. (Source: Highview Power Storage, (c) used with Permission.)

FIGURE 1.5  Pumped heat storage system. (Taken from Isentropic Ltd.)

Some developers of mechanical systems have considered storing energy as torsion or compression of solids, but these are still at the conceptual stage.

Several proposals have been made for the construction of new man-made offshore islands, from which a deep hole is made into the sea floor and a subsurface pumped hydro storage plant is developed. Several developers have proposed on-shore subsurface pumped hydro energy storage (Figure 1.6), some using disused coal or mineral workings, or systems in which a desirable mineral, such as granite, is excavated in such a way as to facilitate the construction of a new underground pumped hydro scheme.

FIGURE 1.6  Large-scale gravitational energy storage system. (Concept taken from escovale, ground breaking energy storage, 2013.)

Also under consideration are proposals to use gravitational potential energy in the form of loaded railway wagons as a storage medium. Electrical energy is used to lift gravel up an incline, and it can be recovered by scoping it into descending wagons on an incline or cable car. These concepts have limited geographical applicability.

Further developments include proposals to excavate one or two large cylindrical holes to a depth of several hundred meters and use a large piston to act as the drive for a gravitational storage device.

Technical solutions such as raising and lowering cylinders of rock or concrete are large-scale solutions and are unlikely to be competition for electrochemical energy storage in the range of up to 10 or even 100  MWh.

While conceptually there are no fundamental technical reasons why these grand projects should not be considered as viable energy storage solutions, the issues are likely to be commercial, concerning the financing, operation, and regulation, in respect of the stranglehold on a power market that would be in the hand of single operator. Construction times for these projects would be long, leading to higher overall project costs, and when complete, such centralized storage would dominate energy prices in a competitive market, leading to possible stagnation of development by other providers.

1.5.5. Novel Electrochemical Storage

In this book the focus is on the use of conventional electrochemical energy storage so that the following chapters do not include proposals for electrochemical storage that are still at the development stage. The all-liquid metal battery has been under development at Massachusetts Institute of Technology since 2007, and recently a new company has been formed to commercialize the product. A preliminary version of the battery is based on a high-temperature cell filled with magnesium to form an anode, a molten salt electrolyte, and a cathode of antimony. Information on the current development is commercially sensitive as it will be based on an alternative electrochemistry, but it is likely to use low-cost molten electrodes and electrolytes.

1.6. Commercialization of Energy Storage

Much has been written about the need for storage from a technical perspective, but much less is understood as to the means of cost recovery for the investment in technology. Numerous technology developers have been forced into financial administration, or have abandoned their efforts prematurely, because their financial sponsors have become dismayed either at the expenditure or at the lack of real market, or both. There needs to be greater clarity in the true, overall costs of running the electricity system, understanding the relative costs of different types of generation, and the effects of different modes of operation. Consumers will need to understand how their energy is purchased, and to see the effects of network charges on their overall energy account. While the first part of the Energiewende has been based on technical change, the next stage involves a radical reassessment of the commercial and regulatory structure of the energy industry. The present book covers these aspects in some detail.

References

[1] Oko – Institut. Energiewende – Wachstum und Wohlstand ohne Erdöl und Uran. 1980.

[2] UN General Assembly Resolution 43/53. Resolution to Form the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. December 1988.

[3] Poll Gallup. World's Top-Emitters No More Aware of Climate Change in 2010. August 26, 2011. http://www.gallup.com/poll/149207/World-Top-Emitters-No-Aware-Climate-Change-2010.aspx.

[4] Matthes F.C, Hermann H, Zimmer W. ;The Vision Scenario for the European Union 2011 Update for the EU-27;. The Öko-Institut Proposes a 91% Cut in Emissions by 2050; 2011 p. 3.

[5] The Guardian. Nuclear Power Is Only Solution to Climate Change, Says Jeffrey Sachs. May 3, 2012.

[6] UK Government, Energy Act 2013, c32.

[7] Wiesenthal T, Leduc G, Köhler J, Schade W, Schade B. Research of the EU Automotive Industry into Low-Carbon Vehicles and the Role of Public Intervention. European Commission Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies; 2010 p. 15.

[8] Batteries for Electric Cars. BCG Focus; 2010 p.10.

[9] Preece A.H. The electricity supply of London. In: Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. 1898 CXXXIV Session 1897– 98(IV): Paper No. 3110, pp. 127, 159, 161, 163, 164, 173.

[10] Matthes F.C, Hermann H, Zimmer W. The Vision Scenario for the European Union 2011 Update for the EU-27. 2011 p. 63.

[11] Lave M, Kleissl J. Solar variability of four sites across the state of Colorado. Renewable Energy. December 2010;35(12):2867–2873.

[12] Operational requirements and generation fleet capability at 20% RPS, CAISO (California Independent System Operator). Integration of Renewable Resources. August 31, 2010.

[13] M. Lave, J.S. Stein, A. Ellis, C.W. Hansen, E. Nakashima, Y. Miyamoto Ota City: Characterizing Output Variability from 553 Homes with Residential PV Systems on a Distribution Feeder. Sandia National Laboratories SAND2011–9011.

[14] Breame W. Sure Insight Research. 2012.

[15] DSIRE. http://www.dsireusa.org/documents/summarymaps/RPS_map.pdf; June 2012.

[16] Reuters. China's Renewable Energy Targets for 2015 and 2020. August 14, 2012. http://af.reuters.com/article/energyOilNews/idAFL4E8JD2WV20120814.

[17] Bloomberg. India Targets Doubling of Renewable-Energy Installations to 2017. May 22, 2012. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-05-22/india-targets-doubling-of-renewable-energy-installations-to-2017.html.

[18] Government of India Planning Commission. Faster, Sustainable and More Inclusive Growth: An Approach to the Twelfth Five Year Plan. October 2011 p. 31.

[19] Centre for Low Carbon Futures. Liquid Air in the Energy and Transport Systems. 2013.

[20] http://www.uaf.edu/files/acep/BoeingFlywheelOverview_06_20_2012.pdf [accessed December 2013].

Chapter 2

Classification of Storage Systems

Dirk Uwe Sauer     Institute for Power Electronics and Electrical Drives (ISEA), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany     Institute for Power Generation and Storage Systems (PGS), E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany     Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, JARA Energy, Deutschland, Germany

Abstract

There are numerous storage technologies and flexibility options to serve the balancing between demand and supply. Even for 100% renewable energy scenarios a sufficient range of technologies is available to solve the storage demands.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to classify the different storage technologies and flexibility options into different categories. This is important especially from an application's point of view, because not any storage technology can be applied in any application. The systematic classifications presented in this chapter help to compare only those technologies for a certain application, grid level and service demand, which are really of relevance for a given problem and which can compete in the same market.

Keywords

Classification; Flexibility options; Negative control power; Positive control power; Storage systems

Chapter Outline

2.1 Introduction and Motivation 13

2.2 Flexibility Options 14

2.3 Different Types of Classifications 14

2.3.1 Classification According to the Needs of the Grid 15

2.3.1.1 ‘Electricity to Electricity’ Storage Technologies 15

2.3.1.2 ‘Electricity to Anything’ Flexibility Options 15

2.3.1.3 ‘Anything to Electricity’ Flexibility Options 16

2.3.2 Classification According to the Supply Time of the Storage System 16

2.3.3 Classification as Single-purpose and Double-use Storage Systems 18

2.3.4 Classification According to the Position in the Grid and the Service Offers 18

2.4 Conclusion 21

2.1. Introduction and Motivation

There is a very wide variety of storage technologies for stationary applications, but no technology is suited to serve all applications. A comparison of storage technologies makes sense only with respect to a certain application. Comparison is very difficult anyway, because of the numerous parameters that define the technical and economical performance of a storage system (see also Chapter 21).

Therefore it is necessary to use classification systems. Generally the classification can be made based on the way energy is stored, e.g., mechanical, electrical, or chemical. However, from an application point of view it makes more sense to classify the storage technologies according to the services they can offer to the markets. Technologies within such a class are in competition to each other, because they must earn their money in the same market under similar conditions.

For stationary applications, in contrast to mobile applications, energy density and power density are of minor importance. Therefore the well-known sorting of technologies according to the Ragone diagram has little meaning in stationary applications, and is not used here.

When classifying storage technologies, it automatically turns out that a broader view is necessary. Grid applications do not need storage systems; they need flexibility options to meet the requirements of an efficient, reliable, and safe grid operation. Storage systems are one option in the portfolio of flexibility options and they are in competition with all other technologies. Surely storage systems are the smartest solution for the flexibility demand, but they are not necessarily the cheapest. Therefore, storage technologies and the demand for storage systems need to be discussed in the context of the flexibility options. Even though this book focuses on the description of storage technologies, other flexibility options and their potential for the grid service market are described briefly in this chapter.

When discussing flexibility options it becomes obvious that thermal storage systems and gas storage systems need to be discussed as well (Figure 2.1). Storage systems, which deliver electrical energy, are the technology of choice if electrical energy is required by the end user. If the end user requires heat or gas, energy should be converted as soon as possible into the respective form of energy and should be stored therein. Gas as well as heat storage systems are significantly cheaper than electrical storage systems. Whereas gas is also cheap to transport, heat transport is very expensive and therefore heat should be generated close to the location where it is needed. Furthermore, it is worth taking into account the mobility market, which can serve as a storage system either for gas (for vehicles with combustion engines) or electricity (for electric vehicles).

FIGURE 2.1  Intersectoral connection of energy systems.

Finally, from the electrical grids' point of view, generating and storing gas is a flexibility option as well as generating and storing heat.

2.2. Flexibility Options

To operate a power grid it is necessary to balance, at any point in time demand and supply of electrical energy. As the electricity grid has no storage capacity on its own, it is essential to have very fast reacting technologies available to achieve the balancing. Generally positive as well as negative control power is required.

Positive control power is needed if the demand is higher than the supply. It can be delivered either by feeding additional power to the grid, e.g., from any type of power generator or from a storage system or by shutting down energy consumers. Reducing or shutting down power consumption in industry for a certain while is an example for positive control power. But also stopping charging a storage system is a load reduction and therefore positive control power. If, e.g., large quantities of electrical vehicles are on the grid to get charged, any reduction in charging power and shift of the charge to a later point in time is positive control power.

Negative control power is needed if the power supply exceeds the demand. It can be delivered either by reducing the output power of power generators or by increasing the demand. Electrical space heating systems and generating hydrogen by means of electrolysis are two of the demand-side management options that deliver negative control