Wheat and Rice in Disease Prevention and Health: Benefits, risks and mechanisms of whole grains in health promotion

Wheat and Rice in Disease Prevention and Health

Benefits, Risks and Mechanisms of Whole Grains in Health Promotion

Editors

Ronald Ross Watson, BS PhD

Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, Health Promotion Sciences Division, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

Victor R. Preedy, BS PhD

Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Nutritional Sciences Division, School of Biomedical & Health Sciences, King’s College London, London, UK

Sherma Zibadi, MD PhD

University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Preface

Acknowledgements

Contributors

Part I Wheat and Health

Section A Wheat Components in Disease Prevention: Overview

Chapter 1. Whole Wheat Pasta and Health

Current Health Condition and Whole Grains

Use of Whole Grain in Pasta Products

Bioactive Compounds of Whole Grain Found in Pasta

Nutrients in Whole Grain Pasta

Chapter 2. Whole Grain and Phytate-Degrading Human Bifidobacteria

Lines of Evolution in Consumption of Whole Grains

The Role of Cereals in the Diet

Phytic Acid (Myo-Inositol Hexakisphosphate, InsP6)

Section B Wheat in Commercial Animal Production

Chapter 3. Effect of Whole Wheat Feeding on Gut Function and Nutrient Utilization in Poultry

Introduction

Effect of Modern Processing Technology on the Development of the Digestive Tract

Methods of Whole Wheat Feeding

Effect of Whole Wheat Feeding on gut Health

Effect of Whole Grain Inclusion on Nutrient Utilization

Use of Other Whole Grains

Conclusions

Chapter 4. Whole Wheat in Commercial Poultry Production

Wheat as a Feed Grain

Whole Wheat Grain in Relation to Production Level and Livability as an Indicator of Health Status in Poultry

Whole Wheat as Related to Quality of Poultry Products and Human Health

Whole Wheat as Related to Digestive Tract Morphology, Intestinal Microflora, Activity of Digestive Enzymes, and Health of Farmed Birds

Section C Wheat in Diabetes and Heart Disease Prevention

Chapter 5. Wheat Fiber in Postprandial Metabolic Profile and Health

Introduction

Effects of Wheat on Postprandial Insulin and Glucose Responses

Potential Mechanisms of Action

Conclusions

Chapter 6. Bioavailability of Calcium, Iron, and Zinc in Whole Wheat Flour

Introduction

Mineral Requirements and Consequences of Deficiency

Phytic Acid: A Potential Inhibitor of Minerals

Micronutrient Interactions

Bioavailability Studies

Conclusion

Chapter 7. Nutritive and Digestive Effects of Starch and Fiber in Whole Wheat

Introduction

Starch

Fiber

Nutritional Effects – Whole Wheat Flour and Obesity

Whole Wheat Flour and Glucose Metabolism

Section D Wheat in Cancer Prevention

Chapter 8. Colorectal Cancer Prevention by Wheat Consumption

Introduction

Colorectal Cancer: Epidemiology and Etiology

Screening for Colorectal Cancer

Prevention of Colorectal Cancer

Wheat Cultivation, Cropping, and Biology

The History of Wheat Domestication

The Definition of Wheat Bran and Dietary Fiber, and a Brief Chemistry

Biological Activity of Wheat Bran and Dietary Fiber Compounds in Colorectal Normal and Cancer Cells

Wheat Bran Consumption, Adenomatous Polyps, and Colorectal Cancer

Conclusion

Chapter 9. Whole Grain and Dietary Fiber Intake and Risk of Prostate Cancer

Introduction

Experimental and Clinical Studies Suggesting a Prostate Cancer-Protective Effect of Whole Grains

Mechanisms Suggested for Dietary Fiber and Whole Grains to Play a Role in Prostate Cancer Etiology

Epidemiological Studies Relating Habitual Intake of Whole Grains or Dietary Fiber to Risk of Prostate Cancer

Conclusion

Chapter 10. Bioactive Phytochemicals in Wheat Bran for Colon Cancer Prevention

Introduction

Wheat Bran and Colon Cancer

Bioactive Phytochemicals in Wheat Bran

Conclusions

Section E Gluten and Disease

Chapter 11. Immunologic Reactions to Wheat

Background

Celiac Disease

Wheat Allergy

Gluten Sensitivity

Why is it Important to know the Difference Between Celiac Disease, Wheat Allergy, and Gluten Sensitivity?

Chapter 12. Celiac Disease and its Therapy

Introduction

Epidemiology

Clinical Presentation

Diagnosis

Treatment

Conclusion

Chapter 13. Gluten Metabolism in Humans

Introduction

Gluten

Gluten Metabolism in Healthy People

Gluten Toxicity, Celiac Disease and Gluten Metabolism

Conclusions

Chapter 14. Adverse Reactions to Gluten

Introduction

Sourdough and Celiac Disease

Sourdough and Cereal Allergies

Sourdough and Gluten Sensitivity

Concluding Remarks

Section F Wheat Fiber

Chapter 15. Antioxidant Properties of Wheat Bran against Oxidative Stress

Introduction

What is Stress?

Oxidative Stress

Antioxidant Properties of Wheat Bran

Conclusion

Chapter 16. Wheat and Rice Dietary Fiber in Colorectal Cancer Prevention and the Maintenance of Health

Introduction

Changes in the Definition of Dietary Fiber

Dietary Fiber Components

Changes in Analytical Methods for Determining Dietary Fiber

Implications of Changing Definitions of Dietary Fiber for the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer by Whole Grain Wheat and Rice Dietary Fiber

Cohort Studies on Dietary Fiber Intake and Colorectal Cancer Risk

Dietary Intervention Studies

The Capp Trials

Chapter 17. Sensory, Technological, and Health Aspects of Adding Fiber to Wheat-Based Pasta

Introduction

Health Effects of Pasta Supplementation with Fiber

Sensory and Technological Impacts

Discussion

Chapter 18. Dietary Fiber and Wheat Bran in Childhood Constipation and Health

Introduction

Prevention of Childhood Functional Constipation

Population Surveys of DF Intake

The Role of Dietary Fiber in the Treatment of Childhood Functional Constipation

Final Remarks

Chapter 19. Wheat Bran and Cadmium in Human Health

Introduction

Dietary Factors Affecting Mineral Bioavailability

Cadmium

Wheat Bran and Cadmium Exposure

Conclusion

Section G Wheat Toxicity

Chapter 20. Wheat Contaminants (Pesticides) and their Dissipation during Processing

Introduction

Mode of Entry of Pesticide Residues and Their Impact on Health

Pesticide Residues in Wheat at Harvest and During Storage

Fate of Pesticide Residues in Wheat Milling

Dissipation of Pesticide Residues in Baked Wheat Products

Conclusion

Part II Rice and Other Whole Grains in Health

Section A Overview of Rice and Health

A1 Nutrients and Rice Consumption

Chapter 21. Genetically Modified Rice with Health Benefits as a Means to Reduce Micronutrient Malnutrition

Introduction

What’s at Stake? The Global Burden of Micronutrient Malnutrition

GM Biofortification as a Novel Micronutrient Intervention

GM Biofortification as a Novel Approach to Crop Improvement

The Global Status of (GM) Biofortification and GM Rice

GM Rice Crop with Health Benefits: The Case of Rice Biofortification

Published Research Coverage on GM Food, GM Rice, Biofortification, and Golden Rice

Consumer Preferences for GM Biofortified Rice

Potential Cost-Effectiveness of GM Biofortified Rice

Key Challenges of the Commercialization of GM Biofortified Rice

Conclusions

Chapter 22. Rice Bran

Introduction

Common Terminology For Dietary Rice Bran and Public Health Opportunities

Current Challenges for Dietary Rice Bran

Dietary Rice Bran Opportunities Throughout the Lifespan

Global Rice Genetic Variation

Conclusion

Chapter 23. Rice Bran Oil

Introduction

Rice Bran Oil: Extraction and Composition

Potential Biomedical Applications of Rice Bran Oil

Trends in the use of Rice Bran Oil or its Derivates in Pharmaceutical, Cosmetic, and Nutraceutical Formulations

Conclusion

Chapter 24. Rice Intake, Weight Change and Metabolic Syndrome

Introduction

History and Consumption of Rice

Nutrition and Metabolic Characteristics of Rice

Rice Intake and Weight Change

Association Between Rice Consumption and Individual Components of Metabolic Syndrome

Association Between Rice Intake and Mets

Physiological Mechanisms

Conclusion

A2 Rice in Diabetes Prevention and Treatment

Chapter 25. Glycemic Index of Indian Cereal Staple Foods and their Relationship to Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome

Introduction

Indian Cereal Staple Foods

Nutritional Composition of Cereal Staple Foods

Glycemic Index and Metabolic Health

Factors Influencing GI of Staple Foods

Conclusions

Chapter 26. Rice and Type 2 Diabetes

Introduction

Rice Intake in Japan

Rice Intake and Type 2 Diabetes Risk in the Japan Public Health Center-Based Prospective (JPHC) Study

Rice Intake and Type 2 Diabetes: Result of Meta-Analysis

Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load and Type 2 Diabetes

Carbohydrate Intake and Type 2 Diabetes

Low-Carbohydrate Diet Score and Type 2 Diabetes

Conclusion

Chapter 27. Rice and the Glycemic Index

Introduction

GI and the Dietary Fiber Content of Rice

GI and the Particle Size and form of Rice

GI and Post-Harvest Treatment of Rice: Parboiling and Milling

GI and the Cooking of Rice: Gelatinization

A3 Rice Toxicity and Toxic Contaminants

Chapter 28. Arsenic in Rice

Introduction

Arsenic in Rice Grain

Arsenic Speciation in Rice Grain

Arsenic in Cooked Rice

Arsenic Speciation in Cooked Rice

Sources of Arsenic in Rice

Human Health Risk of Arsenic From Rice Diet

Mitigation of Arsenic Exposure From Rice

Chapter 29. Arsenic in Rice-Based Infant Foods

Introduction

Arsenic Contents in Rice-Based Infant Products

Arsenic Toxicity and Metabolism in the Human Body

Solutions to Reduce Arsenic Content During Rice Processing

Conclusions

Chapter 30. Inorganic Arsenic in Rice and Rice Bran

Introduction

Inorganic Arsenic Toxicity

Risk Assessment for Inorganic Arsenic

Accumulation of Arsenic in Rice

Inorganic Arsenic in Rice

Health Implications

A4 Rice Fiber

Chapter 31. Apoptosis and Arabinoxylan Rice Bran

The Manufacture of MGN-3/Biobran®

Synergy of MGN-3/Biobran with Interleukin-2 for the Activation of Human NK Cells

Synergy of MGN-3/Biobran with Other Therapeutic Modalities for the Induction of Cancer Cell Apoptosis

Conclusion

Chapter 32. γ-Oryzanol

Introduction

Classification and Biosynthesis of γ-Oryzanol

Extraction and Isolation Of γ-Oryzanol

γ-Oryzanol Analysis and Characterization – Identification of Different Components

Pharmacological Activities and Applications Of γ-Oryzanol

Applications

Conclusion

Chapter 33. Evaluation of Physical and Nutritional Properties of Extruded Products Based on Brown Rice and Wild Legume Mixtures

Introduction

Extruded Products

Conclusions

Chapter 34. Rice Bran Antioxidants in Health and Wellness

Rice Bran Antioxidants

Biomedical Importance of Rice Bran Antioxidants for Oxidative Stress

Rice Bran Antioxidants for Gastrointestinal Complaints

Rice Bran Antioxidants for Inflammation

Rice Bran Antioxidants for Hypercholesterolemic–Hyperlipidemic Patients

Rice Bran Antioxidants for Neoplasia

Rice Bran Antioxidants Ameliorate Type 2 Diabetes Via Increased Adiponectin Secretion

Rice Bran Antioxidants for Allergy Syndrome

Rice Bran Antioxidants for Post-Menopausal Syndrome

Rice Bran Antioxidants in Reducing Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

Rice Bran Antioxidants in Preservation of Food and Skin Color

Miscellaneous Uses of Rice Bran Phytochemicals

Chapter 35. Organic Rice Bran Oils in Health

Introduction

Conventional RBO Production

Organic RBO Production

Effects of Processing on RBO Components

Health Benefits of RBO

Mechanisms

Conclusions

Chapter 36. Fermented Rice Bran Attenuates Oxidative Stress

Introduction

Fermented Cereal Foods and Prevention of Oxidative Disorders

Fermented Rice Bran

Oxidative Stress and Antioxidants

Antioxidant Effects of Fermented Rice Bran on Oxidative Stress

Conclusion

Chapter 37. Rice Bran Oil’s Role in Health and Cooking

Introduction

Recovering Rice Bran Oil

Physicochemical Properties of Rice Bran Oil

Nutritional Aspects of Rice Bran Oil

Conclusion

Section B Novel Approaches to Bran and Whole Grains

Chapter 38. Amino Acid Production from Rice Straw Hydrolyzates

Introduction

Lignocellulosic Biomass as Wastes from Agro-Industry

Corynebacterium Glutamicum as a Workhorse for Biotechnology

Outlook

Chapter 39. Germinated Barley Foodstuff Dampens Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Introduction

Preparation of GBF and its Properties

GBF as a Prebiotic in Healthy Human Subjects and Animals

The Effects of GBF on Dysfunction of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Animal Models

GBF as a Benefical Food for Ulcerative Colitis Patients

Further Prospects for GBF as a Neutraceutical

Conclusions

Chapter 40. Development of Functional Foods (Enzyme-Treated Rice Fiber) from Rice By-products

Introduction

Preparation of Enzyme-Treated Rice Fiber (ERF) and its Characteristics

The Effects of ERF on Dysfunction of Gastrointestinal Tract in Animal Models

Modulation of Colonic Environment by Rice Bran and its Health Benefits

Conclusions

Chapter 41. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Fortification of Cereal-Based Foods to Increase Fiber and Phytochemical Content

Introduction

Carbohydrate and Antioxidant Profile of Chickpea Seeds

Technological Processes to Improve the Chickpea Nutritional Profile

Chickpea Flour in Cereal-Based Products

Conclusions

Index

Color Plates

Copyright

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Preface

Whole grains consist of the intact, ground, cracked or flaked kernel if it still has bran and the germ of the grain. Fiber intake in humans is alarmingly low, with long-term implications for risk of heart disease, hypertension, stroke, obesity, and diabetes, among other major public health problems. Eating wheat and rice as whole grains increases certain fibers known to prevent or reduce these chronic diseases. The bran and fiber enhance bowel regularity and gastrointestinal health, with improved weight loss and maintenance, and lower chronic heart disease. Currently less than 3% of American children and adults meet their appropriate fiber intakes, with consumption running at about 50% of the desired intake. Fiber is an under-consumed nutrient of public health concern, according to the 2010 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Several studies show that consuming 30 grams of whole grains daily reduces the likelihood of diabetes and heart diseases by about 30%.

In this book, bran from and on wheat and rice is reviewed by a number of experts. Part I, Wheat and Health, opens with a discussion of the role of whole wheat in pasta in health. Reviews of its fiber show vital modification of postprandial metabolic profile and health, digestive effects including childhood constipation, and reduction of prostate and colorectal cancer risk. Bran is shown to be important in providing antioxidants against antioxidant stress and as a source of cadmium, and there is an additional chapter on calcium, iron, and zinc for optimum health. Whole wheat plays an important role in gut function and nutrient utilization as well as growth and development of birds, described in chapters using poultry as a model for human health. Reviews show that whole grain affects phytate-degrading human bifidobacteria. Gluten from fiber is described in humans for its involvement with gut microbiota in health promotion. Finally, wheat fiber affects the sensory and health aspects when added to pasta.

In Part II, Rice and Other Whole Grains in Health, rice bran is described as a global public health opportunity. Several authors document the role of whole rice in weight change, metabolic syndrome, and altering the glycemic index for diabetics. Oils in rice bran have benefits to health, and applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Genetically modified rice is suggested to have health benefits in reducing micronutrient malnutrition, and a potential impact via rice biofortification. Other authors describe extruded products from brown rice with unique physical and nutritional properties. Several chapters define the action of rice bran antioxidants in health and wellness. As with wheat, rice bran oil, fermented rice bran, and amino acid production from rice straw hydrolyzates are reviewed for health benefits.

Authors recognize that there are some risks connected with materials in whole grains. One author reviews adverse reactions to gluten and the exploitation of sourdough fermentation. Whole wheat has been documented as an occasional source of contaminants such as pesticides, which are then dissipated during their removal via processing. In developing countries, reviews show that whole rice and rice bran can be sources of arsenic for adults, and another chapter documents health risks in rice-based infant foods. Authors define the roles of rice bran, including arabinoxylan’s immunomodulation as well as actions with anticancer agents. In addition, oryzanol is a developing bioactive component from rice bran. Exciting new developments in the use of enzyme-treated bran fiber from rice by-products produce novel functional foods for health promotion, using materials normally of limited nutritional value.

The book concludes with two reviews of bran and whole grains in health that are from neither wheat nor rice. Germinated barley foodstuffs reduce inflammatory bowel disease and show potential as a dietary therapy. Chickpeas are used to fortify wheat- and rice-based foods to increase fiber and phytochemical content. Overall, the uses of whole rice and wheat are varied, with substantial roles in health promotion and disease prevention.

Acknowledgements

The work of Dr Watson’s editorial assistant, Bethany L. Stevens, in communicating with authors and working on the manuscripts was critical to the successful completion of the book and is very much appreciated. Support for Ms Stevens’ and Dr Watson’s work was graciously provided by Southwest Scientific Editing & Consulting LLD, and the Natural Health Research Institute (www.naturalhealthresearch.org). Finally, the work of Librarian of the Arizona Health Science Library, Mari Stoddard, was vital and very helpful in identifying key researchers who participated in the book.

Contributors

Anwaar Ahmed, BSc, MSc, PhD, Department of Food Technology, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Ahmed M. Amerah, PhD, Danisco Animal Nutrition, DuPont Industrial Biosciences, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK

Akira Andoh, MD, PhD, Shiga University of Medical Science, Division of Mucosal Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Otsu, Shiga, Japan

Apostolis Angelis, PhD, University of Athens, Division of Pharmacognosy and Natural Products Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, Athens, Greece

Paula Rossini Augusti, BSc, MSc, PhD, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Department of Food Science, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Porto Alegre, Brazil

Mookambika Ramya Bai, MSc, MPhil, Madras Diabetes Research Foundation, Dr Mohan’s Diabetes Specialties Centre, WHO Collaborating Centre for Non-Communicable Diseases, and International Diabetes Federation (IDF) Centre of Education, Gopalapuram, Chennai, India

Trust Beta, PhD, University of Manitoba, Richardson Centre for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, Smartpark, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

Dieter Blancquaert, PhD, Ghent University, Department of Physiology, Laboratory of Functional Plant Biology, Ghent, Belgium

Erica C. Borresen, MPH, Colorado State University, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA

Francisco Burló, PhD, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Departamento Tecnología Agroalimentaria, Grupo Calidad y Seguridad Alimentaria, Alicante, Spain

Alberto Caminero, PhD

Universidad de León; Área de Microbiología, Facultad de Biología y Ciencias Ambientales, León, Spain

Universidad de León, Instituto de Biología Molecular, Genómica y Proteómica (INBIOMIC), León, Spain

Ángel A. Carbonell-Barrachina, PhD, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Departamento Tecnología Agroalimentaria, Grupo Calidad y Seguridad Alimentaria, Alicante, Spain

Claudia Cascio, PhD, De Montfort University, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Leicester, UK

Javier Casqueiro, PhD

Universidad de León; Área de Microbiología, Facultad de Biología y Ciencias Ambientales, León, Spain

Universidad de León, Instituto de Biología Molecular, Genómica y Proteómica (INBIOMIC), León, Spain

Concha Castaño-Iglesias, PhD, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Departamento de Farmacología, Pediatría y Química Orgánica, Alicante, Spain

Un Jae Chang, Dongduk Women’s University, Department of Food and Nutrition, Seoul, South Korea

Maria da Graça Kolinski Callegaro, PhD, Federal University of Santa Maria, Integrated Center for Laboratory Analysis Development (NIDAL), Department of Food Technology and Science, Center of Rural Sciences, Santa Maria, Brazil

Hans De Steur, PhD, Ghent University, Department of Agricultural Economics, Ghent, Belgium

Raffaella Di Cagno, PhD, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Department of Soil, Plant and Food Science, Bari, Italy

Mary R. Dicklin, PhD, Biofortis Clinical Research, Addison, Illinois, USA

Silvina R. Drago, Dr, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Instituto de Tecnología de Alimentos, Santa Fe, Argentina

Tatiana Emanuelli, PhD, Federal University of Santa Maria, Integrated Center for Laboratory Analysis Development (NIDAL), Department of Food Technology and Science, Center of Rural Sciences, Santa Maria, Brazil

Clara Fares, Consiglio per la Ricerca e la Sperimentazione in Agricoltura, Cereal Research Centre, Foggia, Italy

Christopher M. Fellows, BSc PhD, University of New England, School of Science and Technology, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia

Lynnette R. Ferguson, DPhil, DSc, Discipline of Nutrition, Auckland, New Zealand

Xavier Gellynck, PhD, Ghent University, Department of Agricultural Economics, Ghent, Belgium

Mamdooh Helal Ghoneum, PhD, Charles Drew University of Medicine and Science, Department of Otolaryngology, Los Angeles, California, USA

Marco Gobbetti, PhD Professor, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Department of Soil, Plant and Food Science, Bari, Italy

Rolando J. González, Chemical Engineer, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Instituto de Tecnología de Alimentos, Santa Fe, Argentina

Silvia Stanisçuaski Guterres, PhD, Department of Production and Control of Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil

Maria Halabalaki, PhD, University of Athens, Division of Pharmacognosy and Natural Products Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, Athens, Greece

Gi Dong Han, PhD, Yeungnam University, Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Natural Resources, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea

Parvez I. Haris, PhD, De Montfort University, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Leicester, UK

Monika Haros, PhD, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA-CSIC), Paterna-Valencia, Spain

Philip J. Harris, MA, PhD, University of Auckland, School of Biological Sciences, Auckland, New Zealand

Alexandra R. Herrán, MSc

Universidad de León; Área de Microbiología, Facultad de Biología y Ciencias Ambientales, León, Spain

Universidad de León, Instituto de Biología Molecular, Genómica y Proteómica (INBIOMIC), León, Spain

Masashi Higuchi, PhD, Meiji University, Organization for the Strategic Coordination of Research and Intellectual Property, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan

Rhanissa Hirawan, University of Manitoba, Department of Food Science, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

Yang Hee Hong, Korea University, Department of Food and Nutrition Seoul, South Korea

Masatoshi Hori, DVM, PhD

The University of Tokyo, Department of Veterinary Pharmacology, Graduate School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan

The University of Tokyo, Development of Advanced Technology Laboratory Research Center for Food Safety, Tokyo, Japan

Takamitsu Hosoya, PhD, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering, Graduate School of Biomedical Science, Tokyo, Japan

Md. Shafiqul Islam, DVM, MS, PhD

The University of Tokyo, Department of Veterinary Pharmacology, Graduate School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan

Bangladesh Agricultural University, Department of Pharmacology, Mymensingh, Bangladesh

Muhammad Sameem Javed, BSc, MSc, National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Eun Young Jung, Jeonju University, Department of Home Economic Education, Jeollabuk-do, South Korea

Osamu Kanauchi, PhD, Kirin Holdings Co., Ltd, Strategic Research and Development Department, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan, and Shiga University of Medical Science, Otzu, Japan

Dongyeop Kim, PhD

Yeungnam University, Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Natural Resources, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea

Hokkaido University, Division of Applied Bioscience, Graduate School of Agriculture, Sapporo, Japan

Dariusz Kokoszyński, University of Technology and Life Sciences, Faculty of Animal Breeding and Biology, Department of Poultry Breeding and Evaluation of Animal Products, Bydgoszcz, Poland

Willy Lambert, PhD, Ghent University, Department of Bioanalysis, Laboratory of Toxicology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Muriel Larauche, PhD, CURE: Digestive Diseases Research Center and Oppenheimer Family Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Digestive Diseases Division at the University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA

Christelle Lemus, PhD, University of Athens, Division of Pharmacognosy and Natural Products Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, Athens, Greece

Helga Verena Leoni Maffei, MD, PhD, Full Professor of Pediatric Gastroenterology (retired), Professor Emeritus of São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Paulo, Brazil Past president of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition Societies: São Paulo (1986-8), and Latin-America (1987-9) São Paulo State University (UNESP), Department of Pediatrics – Botucatu Medical School, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

Kevin C. Maki, PhD, FNLA, Biofortis Clinical Research, Addison, Illinois, USA

Eric V. Marietta, PhD, Mayo Clinic, College of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Rochester, Minnesota, USA

Christian Matano, MSc, Bielefeld University, Faculty of Biology & CeBiTec, Bielefeld, Germany

Naoki Matsuki, DVM, PhD, The University of Tokyo, Department of Veterinary Clinical Pathobiology, Graduate School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan

Tobias M. Meiswinkel, MSc, Bielefeld University, Faculty of Biology & CeBiTec, Bielefeld, Germany

Valeria Menga, Consiglio per la Ricerca e la Sperimentazione in Agricoltura, Cereal Research Centre, Foggia, Italy

Bruna Gressler Milbradt, Federal University of Santa Maria, Graduate Program in Food Science and Technology, Center of Rural Sciences, Santa Maria, Brazil

Keiichi Mitsuyama, MD, PhD, Kurume University School of Medicine, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Center, Division of Gastroenterology, Kurume, Japan

Tetsuya Mizoue, MD, PhD, Department of Epidemiology and Prevention, Center for Clinical Sciences, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan

Joseph Birundu Mogendi, PhD

Ghent University, Department of Agricultural Economics, Ghent, Belgium

Mt Kenya University, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Thika, Kenya

Viswanathan Mohan, MD, FRCP, PhD, DSc, FNASc, FASc, FNA, FACP, FACE, Madras Diabetes Research Foundation, Dr Mohan’s Diabetes Specialties Centre, WHO Collaborating Centre for Non-Communicable Diseases, and International Diabetes Federation (IDF) Centre of Education, Gopalapuram, Chennai, India

Sandra Munera-Picazo, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Departamento Tecnología Agroalimentaria, Grupo Calidad y Seguridad Alimentaria, Alicante, Spain

Joseph A. Murray, MD, Mayo Clinic, College of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Rochester, Minnesota, USA

Reiko Nagasaka, PhD, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Department of Food Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan

Ravi Naidu, PhD, University of South Australia, Center for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation (CERAR), Mawson Lakes, South Australia, Australia; and Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC-CARE), Salisbury South, South Australia, Australia

Akiko Nanri, PhD, Department of Epidemiology and Prevention, Center for Clinical Sciences, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan

Vandana Nehra, MD, Mayo Clinic, College of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Rochester, Minnesota, USA

Kristin M. Nieman, PhD, Biofortis Clinical Research, Addison, Illinois, USA

Katharina Nimptsch, PhD, MSc, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC), Molecular Epidemiology Research Group, Berlin, Germany

Esther Nistal, PhD, Universidad de León; Área de Microbiología, Facultad de Biología y Ciencias Ambientales, León, Spain

Kazuyuki Ohara, PhD

Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Department of Food Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan

The University of Tokyo, Laboratory of Marine Biochemistry, Graduate School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan

Hiroshi Ozaki, DVM, PhD

The University of Tokyo, Department of Veterinary Pharmacology, Graduate School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan

The University of Tokyo, Development of Advanced Technology Laboratory Research Center for Food Safety, Tokyo, Japan

Elena Pastor-Cavada, Dr, Instituto de la Grasa (CSIC), Sevilla, Spain

Jenifer Pérez-Andrés, MSc

Universidad de León; Área de Microbiología, Facultad de Biología y Ciencias Ambientales, León, Spain

Universidad de León, Instituto de Biología Molecular, Genómica y Proteómica (INBIOMIC), León, Spain

Michelle Pietzak, MD, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles County + University of Southern California Medical Center and Children’s Hospital, Los Angeles, California, USA

Adriana Raffin Pohlmann, PhD, Department of Organic Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil

Mohammad Azizur Rahman, PhD, University of Technology, Centre for Environmental Sustainability, Faculty of Science, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Mohammad Mahmudur Rahman, PhD, University of South Australia, Center for Environmental Risk Assessment and Remediation (CERAR), Mawson Lakes, South Australia, Australia; and Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC-CARE), Salisbury South, South Australia, Australia

Tia M. Rains, PhD, Biofortis Clinical Research, Addison, Illinois, USA

Amanda Ramírez-Gandolfo, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Departamento Tecnología Agroalimentaria, Grupo Calidad y Seguridad Alimentaria, Alicante, Spain

Muhammad Atif Randhawa, BSc, MSc, PhD, National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Velmurugu Ravindran, BSc, MS, PhD, Massey University, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Palmerston North, New Zealand

Lucas Almeida Rigo, MSc, Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil

Carlo Giuseppe Rizzello, PhD, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Department of Soil, Plant and Food Science, Bari, Italy

Abdul Rohman, MS., PhD., Apt, Gadjah Mada University, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, and Research Center of Halal Products, Yogyakarta, Indonesia; and Center of Research for Figh Science and Technology (Cirst) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia

Nongluck Ruangwises, PhD, Mahidol University, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Bangkok, Thailand

Suthep Ruangwises, PhD, Chulalongkorn University, Department of Veterinary Public Health, Bangkok, Thailand

José María Ruíz de Morales, PhD

Hospital de León, Departamento de Immunología, Altos de Nava, León, Spain

Universidad de León, Instituto de Biomedicina (IBIOMED), León, Spain

Ruy Carlos Ruver Beck, PhD, Department of Production and Control of Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil

Elizabeth P. Ryan, PhD

Colorado State University, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA

Colorado School of Public Health, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA

Piyawat Saipan, PhD, Khon Kaen University, Department of Veterinary Public Health, Khon Kaen, Thailand

Shengmin Sang, PhD, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, Kannapolis, North Carolina, USA

Juan Mario Sanz-Penella, PhD, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA-CSIC), Paterna-Valencia, Spain

Zumin Shi, MD, PhD, University of Adelaide, Discipline of Medicine, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

Antonio J. Signes-Pastor, PhD

Universidad Miguel Hernández, Departamento Tecnología Agroalimentaria, Grupo Calidad y Seguridad Alimentaria, Alicante, Spain

and De Montfort University, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Leicester, UK

Mike J. Sissons, BAgSc, MAgSc, PhD, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Tamworth Agricultural Institute, Calala, New South Wales, Australia

Alexios Leandros Skaltsounis, Prof, University of Athens, Division of Pharmacognosy and Natural Products Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, Athens, Greece

Khongsak Srikaeo, PhD, Pibulsongkram Rajabhat University, Faculty of Food and Agricultural Technology, Muang Phitsanulok, Thailand

Hyung Joo Suh, Korea University, Department of Food and Nutrition Seoul, South Korea

Birger Svihus, PhD, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Aas, Norway

Katarzyna Szarlej-Wcislo, MD, PhD, Military Institute of Medicine, Department of Oncology, Warsaw, Poland

Yvette Taché, PhD, CURE: Digestive Diseases Research Center and Oppenheimer Family Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Digestive Diseases Division at the University of California Los Angeles, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA

Anne W. Taylor, PhD, University of Adelaide, Discipline of Medicine, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

Hideki Ushio, PhD

The University of Tokyo, Development of Advanced Technology Laboratory Research Center for Food Safety, Tokyo, Japan

The University of Tokyo, Laboratory of Marine Biochemistry, Graduate School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan

Ruchi Vaidya, MSc, PhD, Madras Diabetes Research Foundation, Dr Mohan’s Diabetes Specialties Centre, WHO Collaborating Centre for Non-Communicable Diseases, and International Diabetes Federation (IDF) Centre of Education, Gopalapuram, Chennai, India

Dominique Van Der Straeten, PhD, Ghent University, Department of Physiology, Laboratory of Functional Plant Biology, Ghent, Belgium

Luis Vaquero, MD, Hospital de León, Departamento de Gastroenterología, Altos de Nava, León, Spain

Sudha Vasudevan, MSc, Madras Diabetes Research Foundation, Dr Mohan’s Diabetes Specialties Centre, WHO Collaborating Centre for Non-Communicable Diseases, and International Diabetes Federation (IDF) Centre of Education, Gopalapuram, Chennai, India

Santiago Vivas, PhD

Hospital de León, Departamento de Gastroenterología, Altos de Nava, León, Spain

Universidad de León, Instituto de Biomedicina (IBIOMED), León, Spain

Muhammad Wasim Sajid, BSc, MSc, National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Gabriel Wcislo, MD, PhD, Military Institute of Medicine, Department of Oncology, Warsaw, Poland

Volker F. Wendisch, Prof. Dr., Bielefeld University, Faculty of Biology & CeBiTec, Bielefeld, Germany

Gary A. Wittert, MBBch, MD, University of Adelaide, Discipline of Medicine, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

Yingdong Zhu, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, Kannapolis, North Carolina, USA

Part I

Wheat and Health

Outline

Section A: Wheat Components in Disease Prevention: Overview

Chapter 1. Whole wheat pasta and health

Chapter 2. Whole grain and phytate-degrading human bifidobacteria

Section B: Wheat in Commercial Animal Production

Chapter 3. Effect of whole wheat feeding on gut function and nutrient utilization in poultry

Chapter 4. Whole wheat in commercial poultry production

Section C: Wheat in Diabetes and Heart Disease Prevention

Chapter 5. Wheat fiber in postprandial metabolic profile and health

Chapter 6. Bioavailability of calcium, iron, and zinc in whole wheat flour

Chapter 7. Nutritive and digestive effects of starch and fiber in whole wheat

Section D: Wheat in Cancer Prevention

Chapter 8. Colorectal cancer prevention by wheat consumption: a three-valued logic - true, false, or otherwise?

Chapter 9. Whole grain and dietary fiber intake and risk of prostate cancer

Chapter 10. Bioactive phytochemicals in wheat bran for colon cancer prevention

Section E: Gluten and Disease

Chapter 11. Immunologic reactions to wheat: celiac disease, wheat allergy, and gluten sensitivity

Chapter 12. Celiac disease and its therapy: current approaches and new advances

Chapter 13. Gluten metabolism in humans: involvement of the gut microbiota

Chapter 14. Adverse reactions to gluten: exploitation of sourdough fermentation

Section F: Wheat Fiber

Chapter 15. Antioxidant properties of wheat bran against oxidative stress

Chapter 16. Wheat and rice dietary fiber in colorectal cancer prevention and the maintenance of health

Chapter 17. Sensory, technological, and health aspects of adding fiber to wheat-based pasta

Chapter 18. Dietary fiber and wheat bran in childhood constipation and health

Chapter 19. Wheat bran and cadmium in human health

Section G: Wheat Toxicity

Chapter 20. Wheat contaminants (pesticides) and their dissipation during processing

Section A

Wheat Components in Disease Prevention: Overview

Outline

Chapter 1. Whole wheat pasta and health

Chapter 2. Whole grain and phytate-degrading human bifidobacteria

Chapter 1

Whole Wheat Pasta and Health

Rhanissa Hirawan∗, and Trust Beta† ∗University of Manitoba, Department of Food Science, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada †University of Manitoba, Richardson Centre for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, Smartpark, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

Abstract

Wheat whole grain is a source of health-promoting phytochemicals in addition to traditional nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals. Removal of wheat bran outer layers and wheat germ to produce semolina for pasta production significantly decreases phytochemicals and nutrients responsible for the health benefits of whole wheat grain. Whole wheat pasta is an ideal product for retention of the natural substances present in the durum wheat kernel. This chapter provides an overview of the relationship between whole grains and current health conditions, use of whole grain in pasta products, bioactive phytochemicals in whole grain and pasta, and, lastly, the major and minor nutrients in whole wheat pasta.

Keywords

whole grains; wheat; pasta products; health; nutrition; bioactive compounds

Current Health Condition and Whole Grains

Obesity

Statistics indicate that the rate of obesity has more than doubled since 1970, and Americans were still not meeting the United State Department of Agriculture (USDA) dietary recommendations in 2003 and 2005.¹ It has been shown that, after adjusted calculation for age and height, average body weights increased by almost 10% in the 20 years before the early 21st century, and that occurrence of clinical obesity has maintained its rapid increasing rate.² The increasing prevalence of the overweight trend is affecting not only developed countries, including the US and Canada, but also developing countries as they have experienced rapid economic growth.³ There are currently more overweight than underweight people in the world,⁴ where there is now widespread overconsumption of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods resulting in diet-related chronic diseases. One of the well-known and well-repeated solutions is to decrease the consumption of refined grains by a significant amount; other recommendations include significantly reducing the intake of added fats, sugars, and sweeteners.

Whole Grain Foods and Health

Regular consumption of whole grain and whole wheat foods in place of refined grain provides a solution to the issue described above, for specific reasons. The discussion of whole grain in this chapter is focused on wheat as the major cereal produced, and one whose grain products are highly consumed worldwide.⁵ According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Whole Grain Label Statement Draft Guidance written in 2006, Cereal grains that consist of the intact, ground, cracked or flaked caryopsis, whose principal anatomical components – the starchy endosperm, germ and bran – are present in the same relative properties as they exist in the intact caryopsis – should be considered a whole grain food.⁶ The American Association of Cereal Chemists is currently (2012) updating their definition of whole grain as stated in their AACCI Standard Definitions.⁷ Health Canada defines whole grain as products containing all three parts of the grain kernel, which are the bran, the endosperm, and the germ, while Refined grains are whole grains that have had the germ and the bran removed.⁸ In Canada, different types of flour are made by milling wheat, separating the different kernel parts and then recombining them to make specific types of flour, including whole wheat, whole grain, white cake and pastry, and all-purpose white flours. If all the parts are used in proportions similar to those of the original kernel, then the product is whole grain flour. Whole grain and whole wheat are different products. If 5% of the germ and bran is removed to reduce rancidity and prolong the shelf life of whole grain flour, it becomes whole wheat flour.⁸ The definitions of whole grain and whole wheat name the parts of the grain kernel that must be included in order to be nominated whole grain or whole wheat. However, the amounts of these parts that must be present in the final product in order for it to be called a whole grain or whole wheat product are not specified. In order to achieve the health benefits that will be discussed in the next paragraph, and were summarized in a claim by General Mills, Inc. on March 10, 1999 as Diets high in plant foods – i.e., fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grain cereals – are associated with a lower occurrence of coronary heart disease and cancers of the lung, colon, esophagus, and stomach, the definition of whole grain was further clarified as foods that contain 51 percent or more whole grain ingredient(s) by weight per reference amount customarily consumed (RACC).⁹ In other words, the first ingredient on the ingredient listing must be a whole grain, such as whole wheat, oats, barley, rye, and millet.¹⁰

Whole grain possesses a specific food structure that provides increased satiety, and reduced transit time and glycemic response.¹¹ There are also health-promoting components that are concentrated in the bran and germ parts of the wheat kernel, including fiber, which provides improved fecal bulking, satiety, short-chain fatty acid production, and/or lowered glycemic response; magnesium, which improves glycemic homeostasis through increased insulin secretion; and bioactive compounds, including some minerals, vitamins, carotenoids, polyphenols, and alkylresorcinols, which have antioxidant and anticarcinogenic properties.¹¹,¹² Health effects observed through large prospective population-based studies included lower risk of obesity and weight gain (especially abdominal fat accumulation) – effects also observed with a combination of high fruit and dairy intake and low white bread, processed meat, margarine, and soft drink intake¹³–¹⁵ – a lower risk of cardiovascular diseases in regard to lower plasma cholesterol as well as LDL cholesterol levels,¹⁶–¹⁹ and a lower risk of type 2 diabetes, including the effect of the particle size of whole grain in decreasing insulin response.¹⁸,²⁰,²¹ Removal of bran and germ in the production of refined grains eliminates these health benefits due to the removal of both these components and their synergistic effects.²²,²³

Despite the health benefits mentioned above, studies on whole grain consumption trends indicated a low level of less than one serving per day per person, which is well below the recommended level of three servings per day.²⁴,²⁵ The socio-demographic group that consumes a greater amount of whole grain comprises the more health-conscious segment, which consists of women, older people, and more educated people.²⁵,²⁶ Ratings for whole grain pasta when compared with their refined grain options regarding their relative pleasantness were equal, although there were also some inferior ratings.²⁷ Another issue with whole grain products is that the majority of the consumers perceive whole grain as providing a minor health benefit when compared with fruits and vegetables.²⁷ The pricing of whole grain products, especially pasta, is also a concern in efforts to promote the health benefits of these products. Whole grain product development should be focused on the types of foods that consumers appreciate and consider to be a major factor that can bring changes to their health conditions. The following summary of results from selected studies sheds some positive light on the promotion of whole grain intake. One study reported that staple foods such as bread and pasta were preferred to hedonistic foods such as biscuits and other snack products.²⁸ Whole grain intake that starts at an early age might remain a dietary habit for the long term when compared with a sudden and rapid change in dietary pattern at a later stage of life. Findings based on the eating habits of adolescents in Minneapolis/St Paul, MN, during the 2009–2010 academic year, regarding healthy foods including breakfast, fruit, vegetable, whole-grain, and low-fat dairy items, showed that adolescent friends share the same eating patterns.²⁹ This suggests that strategies designed by registered dietitians and health professionals to engage friends may enhance wholegrain intake in the everyday eating habits of adolescents. Another study found that dietary modeling involving substitution of a whole grain for a refined grain ingredient of foods commonly consumed by US children and teens, including breakfast cereals, popcorn, breads/rolls, other baked goods, pizza, rice/pasta, quick breads, and other grain-based savoury snacks, can increase the intake of whole grains.³⁰

Current trends in scientific studies of whole grain versus refined grain are replete with results showing consistent health-benefiting properties, including lower body fat percentage in postmenopausal women, and in general, in relation to whole grain bread consumption,¹⁹,³¹ and a lower BMI Z-score in schoolchildren (the BMI Z-score allows for a BMI comparison between a particular child and a group of children of the same age and sex).³²,³³ Whole grain and also cereal fiber intake have been suggested to show correlations with the levels of the plasma alkylresorcinol and its urinary metabolites, 3,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid and 3-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-propanoic acid.³⁴–³⁶ This is because alkylresorcinols have been exclusively found in the whole grain and the bran of wheat, rye, and barley.³⁷ The very low trace amounts of intact alkylresorcinols that have been reported in refined grains are most likely due to bran contamination during milling.³⁸ These alkylresorcinol metabolites were also found to be highly associated with intake of cereal fiber, but not of fruit or vegetable fiber.³⁹ It was observed in one study that levels of plasma alkylresorcinols were inversely correlated with BMI scores in older adults.⁴⁰ However, the detection of these metabolites when there is a lower or no intake of alkylresorcinol-rich foods suggests other plant-based food sources³⁶ which are yet to be characterized. This suggests limitations to the use of alkylresorcinol metabolites as biomarkers for whole grain intake, and potentially the need for further processing of urine samples prior to quantification.⁴¹ Other biomarkers are being used to measure whole grain intake in an attempt to correlate intake with the health condition of individuals. One group of researchers in Europe studied the combined effect of red meat and whole grain consumption using biomarkers that included C-reactive protein (CRP) for inflammation, gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) for oxidative stress, and GGT and alanine-aminotransferase (ALT) for hepatic fat accumulation.⁴² The study concluded that levels of CRP, GGT, and ALT were inversely related to a high consumption of whole grain bread and directly related to a high consumption of red meat.⁴²

Use of Whole Grain in Pasta Products

Pasta Formulation

Many food products are made with a combination of whole grain and non-whole grain, for technical feasibility, shelf-life stability, taste, acceptance, and cost. Listed among such products are whole grain breakfast cereals (containing ≥ 25% of whole grain content), bread, hot cereals, and snacks, including crackers and muffins.⁴³ Several issues arise from this approach, where the relative proportions of whole and non-whole grain ingredients in the product are not clearly stated because information on the exact formulation is normally deemed proprietary to the food manufacturers.⁴³ However, pasta products may be exceptional, providing some solution to these issues in that the first ingredient of whole grain or whole wheat pasta, as found in regular grocery stores in North America, is durum wheat whole grain or whole durum wheat, and other ingredients that may be added include vitamins and minerals such as niacin, ferrous sulfate, thiamine mononitrate, riboflavin, and folic acid. In comparison to the manufacturing process of bread, for instance, pasta production does not require elaborate proving for its dough to rise to a certain volume. The latter therefore has the technical feasibility for using a large proportion of whole grain or whole wheat in the product. Shelf-life stability is also greatly enhanced through the drying process for pasta (< 12% moisture content) compared to bread that is sold fresh after baking (< 40% moisture content).

Pasta Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load

Durum wheat pasta made from regular refined semolina is commonly available as a good source of complex carbohydrates. In addition to its low fat levels, durum wheat pasta owes its low glycemic index and glycemic load to its high resistant starch content.⁴⁴–⁴⁸ The glycemic index classifies foods which are high in carbohydrate content, based on the blood glucose level in the human body after a meal.⁴⁹ The blood glucose level is dictated by the nature of the carbohydrate, and type and extent of food processing.⁴⁹ The low glycemic index and glycemic load result in low glucose and insulin responses since the starch is not completely absorbed in the intestine, and thus the classification of pasta as a source of slow-release carbohydrates.⁴⁹–⁵² The gradual rate of release of sugars from pasta starch, which has been reported to be slower than other cereal products,⁵³ is due to the compact structure of pasta allowing for a very close protein network encapsulating starch granules that delays α-amylase attack⁵⁴–⁵⁷ and the interaction with such components as dietary fiber.⁵⁸ The glycemic load is a function of the carbohydrate intake and its glycemic index, as it estimates how much a food raises a person’s blood glucose level following its consumption.⁵⁹ Studies found that a diet high in glycemic index and glycemic load increases the risk of selected cancers,⁶⁰ including digestive tract and prostate,⁶¹ breast,⁶² colorectal, and endometrial⁶³ cancers, although other reports do not support the direct relationship between glycemic index, glycemic load, and cancer risk.⁶⁴,⁶⁵ The glycemic index of spaghetti (52) was found to be relatively low compared to higher values measured in white bread (100), barley (rich in amylose and β-glucans) (60), and vinegar (64).⁶⁶ Whole wheat durum pasta therefore combines the health benefits attributed to the low glycemic index of regular semolina and the phytochemicals of the bran and germ parts of durum wheat. The latter parts are removed during milling, since durum mills are designed to produce semolina predominantly from the endosperm fraction of the grain. Whole wheat durum pasta is made by incorporating the pulverized bran and germ back into the semolina.

Pasta Production

Pasta is traditionally made from hydrated semolina that is kneaded into dough and extruded into the desired shape. The semolina is transformed into homogenous dough during hydration and kneading. The use of whole wheat or whole grain durum, or the addition of non-traditional ingredients including whole wheat flour and wheat bran ingredients, changes the physical and chemical composition of uncooked and cooked pasta.⁶⁷,⁶⁸ Whole wheat durum dough is generally weak and exhibits poor stability.⁴⁶ The main cause is the uneven distribution of the non-endosperm ingredients that leads to competitive hydration among the ingredients. Statements regarding the eating experience of pasta containing non-endosperm ingredients suggest that these products can have a firm first bite but rapidly disintegrate in the mouth.⁶⁹ One study concluded that instrumental measurement of firmness, springiness, cohesiveness, and chewiness of these non-traditional pastas, including whole wheat durum spaghetti, needs to be combined with a sensory panel.⁶⁹ The probe type used in the instrumental measurement is dependent on the pasta shape, formulation, and cooking time, and level of discrimination desired. The firmness of cooked pasta made from commercial whole wheat durum flours ranged between 749 and 1020 N compared to the normal range of commercial durum wheat semolina pasta of 800–900 N as measured with an Instron instrument equipped with a Kramer cell.⁷⁰ Another study reported whole wheat durum spaghetti as having lower mechanical strength and cooked firmness, and greater cooking loss, than regular refined semolina spaghetti.⁴⁶,⁷¹ A different investigation found that all spaghetti made with the addition of pulverized durum bran, ranging from 0% to 30% bran content in semolina, met both spaghetti quality cooking test standards of cooked firmness and cooking loss.⁷² Similarly good performance was reported in durum semolina spaghetti samples containing 10%, 15%, and 20% added bran when tested against cooking resistance, cooking loss, and instrumental stickiness at the optimal cooking time and on overcooking.⁷³ The results were comparable to spaghetti samples without any added bran. In addition, the susceptibility to breakage during drying of the 15% and 20% bran-containing spaghetti decreased when compared with non-bran containing counterparts.⁷³ There is also the issue of physical appearance of whole wheat durum spaghetti. The surface of cooked whole wheat durum spaghetti was found to be rough with a reddish brown color when compared to the smooth and translucent yellow color of regular refined semolina spaghetti.

Sensory and Nutritional Properties

Sensory and nutritional aspects in one study found panelists preferring the flavor of 10% bran-containing spaghetti over non-bran-containing spaghetti, and a concomitant increase by 3.5 times in dietary fiber content, 40% in calcium content, and 150% in manganese content in the 10% bran spaghetti compared with 0% bran spaghetti.⁷²,⁷³ The nutritional profiles of whole grain and refined pasta at the same portion of 100 g were reported by the National Institute for Health and Welfare in their Fineli database version 14 (www.fineli.fi) as follows: both had similar energy levels, protein, carbohydrate, iron, and folate contents, but different contents of fat (refined had 30% whole grain), fiber (refined had 50% whole grain), manganese (refined had 37% whole grain), and zinc (refined had 44% whole grain).⁷⁴ Single-screw extrusion of whole wheat flour to produce whole wheat spaghetti at 50 psi and 93°C resulted in a significant decrease of several essential amino acids, including 16% less lysine, 10% less threonine, 6% less leucine, and 5% less valine than the original whole wheat, even though the thermal processing was found to significantly increase protein digestibility.⁷⁵

Color is an important pasta sensory quality that comprises (but is not limited to) the desirable yellow color that is the color of durum wheat endosperm. The less desirable brown color is likely an inherent brownness of the endosperm, but also a result of bran contamination. The less desirable reddish brown component is likely a result of some drying conditions. Melanoidins are the brown or reddish brown pigments formed through Maillard reactions during high-temperature drying of pasta, depending on the reducing sugar content of pasta and also the drying parameters.⁷⁶ Polyphenol oxidase is highly concentrated in wheat bran including the tetraploid durum wheat bran.⁷⁷–⁷⁹ This enzyme causes darkening and discoloration of wheat foods through its catalytic action in the reaction involving quinones producing brown and black pigmentation.⁸⁰

Cost of Pasta

The difference in cost between whole grain and non-whole grain products was found to be small in bagel and bread products, with even lower prices for whole grain versus non-whole grain ready-to-eat and ready-to-cook cereals; however, the price of whole grain spaghetti macaroni was found to be more than two times higher than the price of their non-whole grain counterparts.⁸¹ The average cost of whole grain spaghetti was $1.93 per pound in 1995 and $2.18 per pound in 1999, while the average price of non-whole grain spaghetti was $0.74 per pound in 1995 and $0.80 per pound in 1999.⁸¹ Despite the higher charge per gram of whole grain spaghetti when compared with regular semolina pasta, whole grain spaghetti was included as one of the cheap health choices, at 23 cents per serving, among selected fruits, vegetables, pulses, etc., in a 2001 project to develop a healthy diabetes diet plan for the low-income population of South Alabama.⁸² One serving of pasta is half a cup of cooked pasta, according to the Food Guide Pyramid of the Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, at a cost equal to $0.23 per 0.0625 pound or $3.68 per pound of spaghetti in 2001.⁸³ However, the availability of whole wheat spaghetti was very low according to market-based surveys conducted in 25 stores, including chain supermarkets (> 20,000 square feet), small independent grocery stores (12,000–15,000 square feet), and supermarkets that sold bulk food items in Los Angeles and Sacramento.⁸⁴

Factors Limiting Whole Grain Intake

Factors limiting whole grain consumption include consumers’ lack of awareness of the health benefits of whole grain, inability to identify whole grain foods in the marketplace, association of whole grain products with lower sensory quality including taste and palatability, unfamiliarity with the preparation method of whole grain foods, and unwillingness to pay higher costs associated with whole grain foods.⁸¹ Whole grain spaghetti, however, is among the whole grain foods that consumers can easily identify, in the same way as brown rice. It encompasses whole wheat and whole grain types, including the spaghetti types that are produced using buckwheat flour, bran, and brown rice. Whole grain spaghetti was among the whole grain foods that reached large-volume sales, along with oat bran ready-to-eat cereal, with the highest 5-year growth rate when compared with small-volume products, including whole wheat macaroni, fettuccine and rigatoni, spelt, millet and amaranth flour, graham flour, cracked wheat ready-to-cook cereal, and ready-to-eat cereals made with spelt and brown rice.⁸¹ However, whole grain foods still make up a very small portion of total grain food sales. The abundance of studies on health benefits associated with consumption of whole grains also raises the question of the health effect of consuming refined grains. Total elimination of the consumption of refined grains, and especially of favorite foods such as white bread, white rice, or regular pasta, is likely unfeasible. Thus, Williams⁸⁵ collected literature with evidence that consumption of moderate levels of refined grain is not related to any health risks, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, or overall mortality, as long as there is not overconsumption of refined grains, especially when combined with high levels of added fat, sugar, or sodium. However, reduced consumption of refined grains by one-third to one-half is all that is needed to achieve a diet that allows for the health benefits of whole grains to take effect.⁸⁵ This statement is further strengthened by another systematic review, where the summarized study results indicate how the proportion of macronutrients in a diet might not be a main factor in preventing obesity, although a diet abundant in whole grain and less refined grain was positively associated with lower weight gain and smaller waist circumference.⁸⁶

Bioactive Compounds of Whole Grain Found in Pasta

The health benefits of whole grain and its use in pasta as outlined above are very likely a result of synergistic effects of the many bioactive compounds in whole wheat grain.⁷⁴,⁸⁷ Several bioactive phytochemical compounds have been studied in wheat. Those reported in pasta products include dietary fiber, oligosaccharides, phenolics (phenolic acids, alkylresorcinols, and flavonoids), lignans, and phytic acid.⁴³,⁷⁴,⁸⁸ Most of these compounds beneficial to health are highly concentrated in the bran and germ portions of whole grain.⁴³,⁸⁹

Dietary fiber is known to positively influence glucose and lipid metabolism.⁴⁴,⁴⁵,⁹⁰ The dietary fiber constituents along with other bran components that include alkylresorcinols, tocols, and sterols are key factors to be considered by plant breeders planning to develop varieties with health-promoting effects.⁹⁰ Studies on the role of fiber in human health have shown convincing inverse association between dietary fiber intake, through vegetable consumption and substitution of refined grains with whole grains, and total and specific mortality even in more recent findings on non-CVD, non-cancer inflammatory and respiratory diseases as well.⁹¹ Total dietary fiber content was measured in regular refined wheat spaghetti and whole wheat spaghetti. Although dietary fiber could not be detected in regular spaghetti, it was found to be 10.36% in whole wheat spaghetti.⁹²

Prebiotics generally include dietary fibers and indigestible oligosaccharides. Their indigestibility allows for better growth of bifidogenic and lactic acid bacteria in the human gastrointestinal tract.⁹³ The health benefits derived from regular intake of prebiotics include gut health maintenance, colitis prevention, cancer inhibition, immunopotentiation, cholesterol removal, reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, and prevention of obesity and constipation.⁹³ Some soluble dietary fibers from modern and old durum-type wheat varieties have been shown to have prebiotic effects when tested on Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains.⁹⁴ Wheat bran is highly concentrated in arabinoxylans, hence enabling the production of arabinoxylooligosaccharides and xylooligosaccharides through enzymatic hydrolysis that occurs in the colon upon ingestion of arabinoxylans.⁹⁵,⁹⁶ The degradation of arabinoxylan from the cell wall component of durum wheat bran in pasta into arabinoxylooligosaccharides and xylooligosaccharides is governed by certain factors, including the coarse particle size of pasta strands, the encapsulation of starch by gluten, and, in turn, the limited absorption of water by the starch.⁹⁷ These arabinoxylooligosaccharides and xylooligosaccharides from cereal-based food products were shown to have prebiotic effects in the colon of humans and animals through selective stimulation of beneficial intestinal microbiota.⁹⁶

Phenolics, lignans, phytate, tocopherols, and tocotrienols are among the compounds acting as antioxidants in whole grain. Phenolics are compounds with one or more aromatic rings and one or more hydroxyl groups. They are the most studied bioactive compounds in whole grain. Phenolics exist in three forms: free, soluble-conjugated, and insoluble. The classes of phenolics include phenolic acids (hydroxycinnamic acid and hydroxybenzoic acid), alkyl- and alkenylresorcinols, and flavonoids (flavonols, flavones, isoflavones, flavanones, anthocyanidins, and flavanols). The flavanols include catechins, proanthocyanidins, and anthocyanins.

Phenolic acids are hydroxylated derivatives of benzoic and cinnamic acids, with hydroxycinnamic acids being more common than hydroxybenzoic acid. Hydroxycinnamic acids that are commonly measured in grains are p-coumaric, caffeic, sinapic, and ferulic acids, with ferulic acid normally found in the highest levels.⁹⁸–¹⁰⁰ Analysis of flours from four wheat cultivars, using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), revealed that ferulic acid was the predominant phenolic acid in wheat grain (51.0%), followed by caffeic (22.8%) and p-coumaric (17.6%) acids.¹⁰¹ The outer layers of grains contain most of the phenolic acids.¹⁰¹,¹⁰² Three components of eight durum wheat grain samples comprising the starchy endosperm, aleurone layer, and pericarp were found to contain low levels of ferulic acid, a high content of trans-sinapic acid, and high levels of ferulic acid dehydrodimers, respectively.¹⁰³ Two studies on antioxidant activity in the outer layers of wheat obtained using a de-branning technique found that the first 5% pearled fraction contained the most pentosan, although it was lower in antioxidant activity; the next 5% pearled fraction had high levels of dietary fiber and antioxidant activity; and total dietary fiber and antioxidant activity decreased as amount of endosperm increased after removal of 10–20% pearlings.¹⁰⁴,¹⁰⁵ Most phenolic acids are present in the bound form, and HPLC analysis showed that bound phenolics constituted 94.0% of total acids in four wheat cultivars.¹⁰¹ These acids, predominantly ferulic acids, are esterified to arabinoxylans (ferulic acids as a molecular component of arabinoxylans are also known as pentosans) acting as cross-linking agents between these polysaccharides, or between the polysaccharides and lignins, playing a major role in the integrity of plant cell walls in the outer bran layers.¹⁰⁴,¹⁰⁶,¹⁰⁷ The bound ferulic acid of the bran layer is also considered to be a resistance factor against plant disease, especially Fusarium headblight.¹⁰⁸,¹⁰⁹ Ferulic acid levels, along with their total phenolic contents, were measured in commercial spaghetti products (regular spaghetti, regular spaghetti with added inulin fiber, and whole wheat spaghetti).¹¹⁰ Whole wheat spaghetti showed significantly higher ferulic acid and total phenolic contents than regular spaghetti; however, there was a 40% reduction in total phenolic content in regular and whole wheat spaghetti after cooking.¹¹⁰ Regular spaghetti with added inulin fiber perceptibly behaved similarly to regular spaghetti in antioxidant properties, and these findings underscore the need to consume whole grains in order to fully benefit from the synergistic effects of the bioactive compounds in grains versus, for example, consumption of individual bioactive compounds in nutrient supplements.¹¹⁰–¹¹²

Alkyl- and alkenylresorcinols contain a long (normally 15–25 carbons) non-isoprenoid side chain attached to a hydroxybenzene ring.⁹⁸ Both