Energy for Rural and Island Communities: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference Held at Inverness, Scotland, 16–19 September 1985

Telex:77472-UNSLIB

Sponsors

The Conference was sponsored by:

Bank of Scotland

British Council

British Petroleum

British Renewable Energy Forum

Chivas Brothers Ltd.

UK Dept. of Energy

Grampian Regional Council

Highland Regional Council

James Howden & Co. Ltd.

Royal Bank of Scotland

Scottish Branch of British Wind Energy Assoc.

Scottish Development Agency

Scottish Solar Energy Group Western Isles Islands Council

University of Strathclyde

The Sponsors, whilst supporting the aims of the Conference, did not necessarily endorse the views expressed by the Contributors.

TOPIC A

COMMUNITY ENERGY SYSTEMS AND EXPERIENCE

Outline

Chapter 1: An Energy Overview of Canada’s Remote Communities with Reference to the Remote Community Demonstration Program

Chapter 2: The Fotavoltaic Project — a 50 kWp Photovoltaic Array on Fota Island

Chapter 3: Energy and Village Development: the Basaisa Experience

Chapter 4: Renewable Energy at Bornholm — Self-sufficiency for an Island Community in Denmark

Chapter 5: Pay Attention to the Utilization of Renewable Energy in Chinese Islands

Chapter 6: Energy Resources, Supplies and Consumption: a Case Study of Some Rural and Remote Settlements in Nigeria

Chapter 7: Island Alternative Energy — Matching Resources and Needs in Tropical Vanuatu

Chapter 8: System Analysis of a Solar-and Windpower Plant for Nordic Remote Locations

An Energy Overview of Canada’s Remote Communities with Reference to the Remote Community Demonstration Program

D.E. Rodger,     Remote Community Demonstration Program, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa, Canada

ABSTRACT

This paper provides an energy orientation of Canada’s 374 communities which are not served by grid electricity or natural gas distribution systems. It reviews current and projected energy demand in consideration of energy conservation and alternative supply opportunities. It outlines the Remote Community Demonstration Program, a national program designed to help remote communities and their energy supply agencies to identify, assess and implement such opportunities. Finally, the paper presents four approaches to integrated energy systems.

KEYWORDS

Remote communities

Canada

energy conservation

alternative energy supply

integrated energy systems

THE COMMUNITIES

Currently, there are 374 communities in Canada considered remote in the sense that they are not served by grid electricity or natural gas distribution systems. While a small portion of these communities will be so served over the next decade, most have virtually no option for such connection. With a total population of less than 200,000, they comprise approximately 0.8% of the total population of Canada. In the second largest country (by area) in the world, the land area they cover is miniscule.

In their common features, they are very different from major Canadian population centers.

Size

With an average population of approximately 550, they may range from 10 households to 15,000 people. Family sizes are often larger than the Canadian norm.

Location

Located in northern latitudes, they are geographically isolated from the commercial and industrial centers of Canada and have severe access constraints (often limited to plane, barge, or ship) with resultant high transportation costs.

Climate

Climate is characterized by relatively long, cold (down to −60°C) winters with short (often hot) summmers. Growing seasons are limited by short frost-free periods. Snow and ice are normal winter conditions. Permafrost, or permanently frozen ground, is a common building constraint for foundations and infrastructure. Above the Arctic Circle, periods of 24 hour darkness occur in winter and 24 hour daylight occur in summer.

Culture

Most of the communities are characterized by native (Indian or Inuit) population and culture. Religion is normally traditional native or Christian.

Economy

Often traditional economies based on fishing, hunting and trapping predominate. Some communities are governmental administrative centers. Some are based on forestry, mining or commercial fishing. Some have tourism as a base. Many feature local crafts and fabrication. Per capita incomes are usually low relative to the rest of the country.

Level of Service

Health, education, infrastructure and other community services are often of a lower level of service than the Canadian norm.

CURRENT REMOTE COMMUNITY ENERGY USE

Current energy use is characterized by a high dependence on petroleum fuels for power generation and space heating. Petroleum resources are depleting, vulnerable to world-scale cost fluctuations, subject to supply disruptions internationally or in delivery to the communities. Consequently, energy supply to the communities is of considerable concern.

Communities below the treeline are also very dependent on wood fuel for space heating. While wood harvesting is often a source of employment, for climatic reasons tree growth is very slow and wood use may not always be a sustainable option. Other energy resources such as solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, peat, etc. exist but are generally of restricted applicability among communities.

Fuel and electricity costs are high, as much as 15 times the costs in southern Canada due to transportation costs. A litre of fuel oil (air supply) in Fort Severn, Ontario exceeds $1.60. Electricity costs in communities where oil is flown in exceed 50¢/kWh. In the south this cost may be 4¢/kWh. These high costs are offset to the consumer by a variety of governmental subsidies. While easing the consumer energy bill, these subsidies also reduce the incentive of consumers to conserve energy.

Subsidies are a major barrier to the pursuit of energy conservation and alternative energy supply options.

Total remote community energy use is summarized as:

The reasons to pursue energy conservation and alternative energy supply opportunities are two-fold:

- for the communities potential benefits include: improved and more secure energy supply, improved opportunities for economic and social development, improved social conditions (e.g. quality of housing), and in some cases reduced energy prices.

- to the energy supply agencies benefits include: reduced energy costs, consumer subsidy reductions, and increased commercialization opportunities for Canadian contractors and manufacturers. Based on known viable off-oil options, the projected reduction for energy requirements is 25% and for oil requirements 38%. All communities have viable energy conservation opportunities and many have alternative supply opportunities. The response of the Canadian government to these opportunities has been the Remote Community Demonstration Program.

REMOTE COMMUNITY DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM

To help reduce dependence on oil, the federal Department of Energy, Mines and Resources has established the Remote Community Demonstration Program. This Program is designed to help remote communities and agencies responsible for their energy supply to identify, assess and implement appropriate energy alternatives and energy conservation opportunities. To do this, the Program offers advice and limited financial assistance for carrying out studies to explore these opportunities. The Program also contributes funds to a limited number of demonstration projects in selected remote communities across Canada. It then transfers the knowledge gained from funded studies and projects to all communities and agencies where this knowledge is needed.

The Program aims to help communities achieve greater energy self-reliance, lower long-term energy costs and, in some cases, increased levels of electrical service for home, community and local industrial needs.

Eligible communities

To be considered under the Program, communities must be permanent (or have at least five years of planned life remaining) and have no less than ten occupied principal residences, and not be connected to the electricity grid or natural gas sytsems.

Eligible applicants

• eligible communities or groups of communities as represented by recognized local organizations (preferably local governments)

• companies (e.g., forestry, mining) that maintain eligible communities as part of their operations

• provincial or territorial utilities

• federal, provincial and territorial departments and agencies

• other agencies responsible for, or directly interested in, energy supply and conservation for remote communities.

Technologies and measures

In the now completed study phase, a wide variety of energy options were studied, including but not limited to: power supply systems based on wood, wind, hydro, solar, geothermal and tidal resources and energy conservation measures ranging from more efficient use of diesel systems to building retrofits and energy efficient new construction. These studies took place in a diversity of community situations. Many of these studies have led to implementation by communities or energy supply agencies. The priorities which have been identified for follow-up demonstrations are:

Residential space heating

This accounts for 36% of energy used in a typical remote community. Approximately 50% of residential space heating is by oil. Even in homes using wood heat there are opportunities to use the fuel more efficiently. Projects will address:

1. Improving the energy efficiency of new houses through improved design and construction techniques.

2. Improving the energy efficiency of existing homes through energy conservation measures and more efficient energy consuming equipment.

3. Substituting wood for oil as the major fuel for space heating and encouraging the safe, efficient use of wood.

Non-residential space heating

Non-residential buildings which account for 19% of energy consumption are often high energy users. Projects will include:

4. Improving energy efficiency of institutional buildings through energy conservation measures and more efficient energy-consuming equipment.

5. Substituting wood for oil as the major fuel for space heating institutional buildings.

Oil consumption in non-residential buildings may be reduced by linking buildings into a district heating system. Projects will include:

6. Wood fired district heating systems

7. District heating systems using waste heat from diesel generators.

Power generation

In most remote communities power is produced using diesel generators. Power generation accounts for 28% of remote community energy consumption. Projects to increase the efficiency of diesel use will include:

8. Load management and utilisation of waste heat.

Projects to encourage the substitution of oil for generating electricity will include:

9. Small hydro projects

10. Woodfired generating systems

11. Wind turbines

General energy awareness

A significant problem is lack of awareness and lack of communication about energy issues. Activities will include:

12. Community energy planning activities

13. Conferences to bring together the interested parties to share ideas

14. Information transfer activities that are not project specific

INTEGRATED ENERGY SYSTEMS

The Program has applied the term integrated energy sysems in four ways.

Community – agency integration

usually, it is a federal or provincial governmental agency which is responsible for energy supply and energy costs in a community. Often more than one agency may be involved. On the other hand, the community as a whole and its residents are the consumers of energy. RCDP has been an effective vehicle to bring the implicated agencies together to cooperate and coordinate their activities for their own and the community’s benefit and to bring the agencies and the communities together again for the purpose of consultation and coordination in respect of each other’s distinct but related interests.

Energy planning and community planning integration

In the studies and demonstration it is supporting, RCDP is encouraging the planning of energy supply and conservation to not be isolated, uni-dimensional, single purpose activities. Energy is seen as a key economic, social and physical influence on the community. Whether energy provides new jobs or skills for the residents or whether the noisy new diesel generator is located adjacent to houses can have a major positive or negative effect on the community. Energy is not considered an end in itself. As it is integrated into the community, it will contribute to or detract from the community’s larger objectives.

Energy conservation and alternative energy supply integration

RCDP encourages an integrated approach to meeting energy goals. It serves little purpose to implement an alternative energy supply option if wasteful energy demand continues. Similarly, energy conservation goals can often be enhanced by implementing alternative supply options or making existing supply systems more efficient (e.g. through waste heat recovery from diesel power generation systems).

Technical integration

A variety of projects are being supported which feature technical integration of energy systems. Examples include:

– retrofitting diesel power generators with waste heat recovery or cyclical charge systems;

– supplementing diesel power generators with add-on wind turbines to conserve fuel;

– the use of combination wood/oil furnaces or boilers for space heating in houses and institutional buildings;

– the use of cogeneration systems (based on a variety of fuels) to create both heat and power;

– the development of hydro projects to provide both power and domestic water supply to the community.

The Fotavoltaic Project — a 50 kWp Photovoltaic Array on Fota Island

S. McCarthy and G.T. Wrixon,     National Microelectronics Research Centre, University College, Cork, Ireland

ABSTRACT

This paper describes the Photovoltaic system which is used to supply electrical energy to a 250 head dairy farm on Fota Island in Cork, Ireland. Also described is an 80Wp system which supplies the complete electrical requirements of two elderly fishermen on a remote island located on the southwest coast of Ireland.

KEYWORDS

Photovoltaic system

Fotavoltaic Project

dairy farm

EEC Photovoltaic Program

remote island

INTRODUCTION

The Fotavoltaic Project (Wrixon, 1983) is the name given to the 50kWp photovoltaic plant sited at Fota Island in Cork Harbour, Ireland, which supplies electrical power to a dairy farm. It is one of fifteen pilot projects ranging in size from 30kWp to 300kWp which have been built throughout Europe under the auspices of the Solar Energy R&D Programme of the EEC. The aim of this program is to gain experience at European Latitudes and with European climates of the effectiveness of medium sized photovoltaic systems to do useful work.

Powering a dairy farm using a solar generator was selected as the Irish dimension of this program because dairy farming is an important Irish industry and the energy demand of the dairy farm has the same seasonal variation as the output of a solar generator. During the summer months peak electrical demand occurs on the dairy farm due to increased milk yield and during winter months electrical demand decreases due to decreased milk yield and due to calving. Peak load demand of 115kWh/day exists during the summer months and this decreases to less than 5kWh/day in mid-winter. Solar generator output during the summer months exceeds 200kWh/day and decreases to 30kWh/day in mid-winter.

The system began operating in June 1983 and data recording began in January 1984. The first year involved gaining experience with the system’s hardware, improving the software and improving the system’s protection. During the peak milking period between March and August 1984, the PV array generated 20.52MWh, 4.643MWh was supplied to the dairy farm and 9.676MWh was delivered to the utility grid. Some energy was lost due to non-optimised software control and hardware faults. At present the system operates automatically and data are being continually recorded and analysed. The VAX 11/780 computer at the National Microelectronics Research Centre (20km from Fota) displays the PV system’s operation on a graphics terminal using data received from Fota via a telephone link.

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLANT

The main aims of this design were

– to supply the dairy farm loads independent of the utility grid.

– to deliver excess energy to the utility grid.

– to operate automatically.

To implement these aims the following design was adopted. It consists of a 50kWp photovoltaic array, a 600Ah lead-acid battery, three lOkVA self-commutated inverters which supply the dairy farm loads and a 50kVA line-commutated inverter which delivers excess energy to the utility grid. The complete system is controlled automatically by a microcomputer.

Solar Array

The 50kWp array consists of 2775 solar modules mounted on the roof of a south facing building and inclined at 45° to the horizontal. The modules are mounted on a galvanised steel structure in one plane as shown in Fig. 1. The modules (type PQ 10/20/02) are supplied by AEG-Telefunken and are rated at 19.2W at STC (1000 W/m², 25°C).

Fig. 1 The Fotavoltaic Project

The maximum recorded output from the array was 47kWp. The maximum energy generated over a one hour period was 37kWh. Losses in energy were due to the increased module temperature and also the angle of incidence between the sun and the plane of the array. The maximum ambient temperature recorded was 22°C and the corresponding module temperature was 50°C. The glass covers of seventeen modules were damaged since installation. Fifteen were damaged by overtightening and two were damaged by irregularities on the metal frame. Since these modules were installed, AEG-Telefunken have redesigned the module frame to avoid damage due to overtightening. The new modules have special brackets for mounting.

Power Conditioning and Batteries

Power conditioning is performed using two types of inverters. Self-commutated inverters are used to supply the three phase AC loads and a line-commutated inverter is used to deliver excess energy from the system to the utility grid.

Three lOkVA self-commutated inverters known as ‘solarverters’ accept DC inputs of 245V-315V and provide an output of 380V three phase AC. Switching transistors are used to provide an output waveform thus eliminating the quenching circuits required for thyristor operated inverters. The solar-verters operate at 95% efficiency under full-load and are protected by an immediate shutdown when a short circuit or overload