Energy for Rural and Island Communities Ii: Proceedings of the Second International Conference, Held at Inverness, Scotland, 1-4 September 1981

Glasgow

TOPIC A

FUTURE STRATEGY AND PLANNING

Outline

Chapter 1: Review of Renewable Energy Development and Use in Scotland

Chapter 2: Initial Conclusions Regarding the Usage of Renewable Energy Sources on Tresco, Isles of Scilly

Chapter 3: Second Law of Thermodynamics as a Planning Tool for Rural Development

Chapter 4: The Potential and Need for Energy Co-operatives

Chapter 5: Energy Demand Analysis as a Planning Instrument in Limited Resources Areas: the Enza River Valley Case

Chapter 6: The Aberfeldy Project

Chapter 7: Energy and Planning in Limited Resources Areas: the Fontanabuona Case

Review of Renewable Energy Development and Use in Scotland

H. Wyper**, F. Riddoch* and J. Twidell**,     *Department of Physics, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK; **Department of Applied Physics and Energy Studies Unit, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK

Publisher Summary

This chapter lists the names, addresses, and brief details of organizations and individuals engaged in renewable energy supply, development, and use in Scotland. It lists examples of renewable energy installations; discusses, by comparison with the available potential, the relative stage of development for each type of energy source; and evaluates the positive and negative factors that influence this development. No overall assessment of biogas potential and use has been made for Scotland generally or for specific local regions. Within the UK, the only nationalised energy service named with the responsibility for a renewable supply is the North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board. It was never intended that hydropower should be the sole supply of power by the Board, but the uniqueness of local supply options and use in the Highlands and Islands led to a special Act of Parliament to establish the Board in 1943 (HMSO 1943). No independent assessment has been made of the number of solar water heating installations in Scotland. The relatively small proportions of direct solar radiation negate the uses of focused collectors in Scotland. Scottish Physics Departments at Dundee and Heriot-Watt Universities have pioneered research on amorphous silicon devices. A few working photovoltaic silicon crystal systems are used for remote telecommunication stations. A 30kW generating system is planned to be installed on a Scottish island after development at Marchwood Power Station.

KEYWORDS

Renewable

energy

review

Scotland

INTRODUCTION

Our review has three objectives:

(i) To list the names, addresses and brief details of organisations and individuals engaged in renewable energy supply, development and use in Scotland. To list examples of renewable energy installations.

(ii) To discuss, by comparison with the available potential, the relative stage of development for each type of energy source.

(iii) To evaluate the positive and negative factors which influence this development.

Environmental conditions and energy use requirements in Scotland are frequently different from the rest of the U.K. and Europe. Within Scotland, Fig. 1, the Highlands and Islands area is noteworthy with a dispersed population in regions of great renewable energy potential and having to meet high conventional energy costs. The central belt of Scotland is an area of high population density where traditional energy supplies would not be easy to change. In general, business and industry are experienced in engineering, including electronics, and looking for new outlets.

Fig. 1

These are some of the reasons why renewable energy options in Scotland must be considered distinctively. Indeed it should be taken as a matter of scientific principle that since renewable supplies draw from the dispersed environment, each locality or region has its own optimum blend of renewable energy supplies and end uses. The planning, development and functioning of such systems must therefore be done with each locality individually considered. It follows moreover that a policy of encouraging renewable energy use will be a policy to encourage rural development with dispersed manufacturing and business activity. Thus even within Scotland very diverse renewable energy policies can be expected.

Until recently the case for emphasizing Scotland’s renewable energy resources, especially for the Islands, has made little impact on U.K. central government. However there are encouraging signs that this negative response is changing, (Pooley 1981, D.O.E. 1981b).

We have classified renewable energy sources according to Table 1. Each type and subtype is coded by a number, e.g. wind 7, biogas 1.1. The term ‘solar’ is not used in the general sense of all energy ultimately arising from the Sun, but as only that energy initially used as solar radiation. Peat, geothermal energy, and certain secondary uses of energy are mentioned, although they are not strictly renewable. However their use is often considered in association with renewable supplies.

TABLE 1

Classification of Renewable Supplies by Source and a Listing of the Appendices.

THE POTENTIAL FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY IN SCOTLAND : INTRODUCTORY SURVEY

Various aspects can be considered:

(i) The Potential of Supply

This must be judged from the properties of the environment. Situated at the North East edge of the Atlantic Ocean, Scotland, has wind and wave power potential as great as any populated part of the Earth. Off the West coast and the major island groups, the power in the wind averages over 300 W per m² of wind front (average wind velocity ~7 ms–1), and in the deep water waves offshore the potential power averages over 70 kW per m of wave front. This may present an over simplistic picture of the theory and technology of wind and wave power extraction, but the importance of these resources is now well documented and accepted (E.T.S.U.).

Hydro power potential is moderate compared with many regions of the World, but nevertheless is the greatest in the U.K. The present installed hydroelectric plant capacity is 1,052 MW (3 × 10⁹ kWh year–1) by the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board, 123 MW (0.3 × 10⁹ kWH year–1) by the South of Scotland Electricity Board and perhaps 1 MW in a range of private schemes. The potential for further development has not been fully assessed. In 1965 the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board indicated that a further 483 MW of primary hydro supply was being considered for their network, but this did not include the potential for microhydro schemes down to ~5kW capacity (N.S.H.B. 1965).

Unfortunately the full impact of hydro electricity is lessened by treating it as a primary energy resource alongside fossil and nuclear fuels. The latter have very large thermal losses, ~70%, at electrical generation. Whereas the hydro power resource has little loss. Thus Scottish hydro production is often presented as only 4% of the initial primary sources. However the fraction of electricity sent out by hydro is 10% of the total after generation. With full development of Scottish hydropower this could rise to 20%, and with more efficient end use of electricity this fraction could be considerably higher. Even now the 10% contribution of hydroelectricity to the Scottish network with its low generation and works cost is a substantial reason for the lower electricity costs in Scotland compared with England

Solar energy from sunshine has great importance in Scotland despite the small proportion of direct radiation and relatively low yearly energy flux. The major use apart from plant growth is to provide heat for buildings, hot water supply and industrial process heat. Obviously it is sensible to always consider solar input as a fuel saver, for instance to increase background space heat in buildings, to preheat water for conventional heating systems and to partially dry agricultural products. The long space heating season in Scotland (~10 months in the North) allows maximum use of expenditure on solar design. In particular, optimising passive solar input to buildings becomes of equal or greater importance in Scotland than in Southern England, (MacGregor 1981). Space cooling is not needed in Scotland.

Fuels from biological sources must be seriously considered. Far greater use could be made of the traditional supplies of wood and peat, and other developments such as biogas, fuel alcohol, and pyrolytic gases may be important. Since Scotland is a major region for forestry and fermentation industries, it is of the greatest importance to consider the options being developed worldwide in biofuel technology.

The full potential of all renewable sources in Scotland must include these and many other options. Each option is considered in greater detail within this review, and the conclusions summarised.

(ii) The Potential of Use

Scotland is rich in conventional energy resources and present use is dependent on coal, oil, gas and nuclear electricity, Fig. 2. Details of these resources can be found in U.K. government and other publications. The overall picture is that coal is relatively abundant, but the geological conditions make extraction difficult so the lifetime of the resource will be several hundred years. Oil and gas reserves in the North Sea off Scotland now meet the entire U.K. requirements, but will do so for only the next 20 to 30 years. Electricity production is predominantly from coal with an increasing proportion (now 20% of supply) from nuclear stations.

Fig. 2

The present sources of conventional fuels are used predominantly in the U.K. for low temperature heat, <80°C (39%); for high temperature heat, > 80°C, (28%); essential electricity for lighting, machines, etc., but not heat, 9%; for transport (24%), (Leach 1979). It is important to appreciate the relative proportions of these uses. Great importance is attached to the supply of controlled voltage and phase electricity, (~10% of energy use) but frequently the more dominant requirements for heat and transport receive less attention.

The abundant sources of energy supply in Scotland have not led to cheaper prices for the local consumer, since there is a general pressure to equalise energy prices throughout the U.K. Electricity is available at about 3.6p kWh–1, coal at about lp kWh–1 (£80 per tonne), petroleum transport fuels at about 4p kWh–1 (£1.70 per gallon), and heating oil 3p kWh–1. In the Highlands and Islands oil and coal prices tend to be 10% higher than central Scotland (H.I.D.B. 1981).

Renewable energy will only be used in Scotland if it is economically competitive with conventional supplies. The rate of price increase for fossil fuels is above the rate of general inflation, and it is possible that depletion of North Sea and world oil and gas supplies will accelerate this effect. Thus renewable supplies must become increasingly attractive as substitutes for fossil fuels. To summarise present trends for renewable energy use within Scotland we list the following aspects within a framework of economic and technical factors that will be amplified in later sections.

(a) The long term sustainable nature of supply from renewable sources is of significant economic and social importance, leading to greater local self-sufficiency and economic stability.

(b) The outer regions, particularly the Islands, are areas where conventional supply is difficult and expensive, and where the potential of wind and wave power is the greatest.

(c) The demand for building space heat can be helped by passive solar gain and local generation from wind (and occasionally hydro) machines. Such methods are now economically competitive with mains electricity and oil.

(d) Transport presents extreme difficulty. Renewable electricity generation can be channelled to battery and hydrogen vehicles that may be suitable for local transport, especially on the islands. The electrical load that this represents may have benefit for optimising efficiency, e.g. for local control of generating devices by load switching and for night time use.

(e) Electrical grids can be used in various modes. Power can be purchased for an electrical network from dispersed generators, and not all power lines need be maintained at constant voltage and phase, e.g. the proposed wind/diesel system on Fair Isle. One important concept is a grid for lower priced electricity at variable voltage for heat supply. These concepts are most easily applied at the local level.

(f) A number of renewable options can be linked to manufacturing and business developments in Scotland. In general small scale devices and systems encourage economic development in the outer areas, where local manufacture and maintenance services can be based. Larger schemes can be linked with manufacture from central industrial production that is now entirely available within Scotland. The development of hydroelectric power between 1945 and 1965 is an excellent example of such benefit.

1 BIOFUELS

There is a complex and as yet unassessed set of options for energy supply from biological sources. Scottish options are being assessed by individual groups and within a general U.K. assessment sponsored by the Energy Technology Support Unit at Harwell, (e.g. Larkin 1981). Unfortunately the Forestry Commission’s terms of reference and activities at a national level do not relate to wood as an energy source. It is reasonable to relate Scottish options for biofuels with those contemplated for countries with similar environments, such as Scandanavia and Canada. The EEC estimates are that within the Community’s total energy requirement, 5% could be provided from biological residues and 5% from specific energy crops grown so as not to disrupt present agricultural practice (Palz 1980). Within Scotland we can expect marked variations in supply and use options at the local level.

1.1 BIOGAS

The generation of methane from decomposing biological material and sewage is technically possible and financially attractive in certain circumstances in Scotland, despite the low environmental temperature. Research and development work is being followed in University Departments of Microbiology (e.g. Strathclyde University), Public Corporations (e.g. Glasgow City Council), Research Organisation (e.g. Rowett Research Institute), and commercial organisations (e.g. Biomechanics Ltd. for Scottish distilleries). Further details are given in the appendices. As expected, developments seem most favourable when waste disposal is necessary for reasons of public health. There should be more consideration of biogas production from wet cattle sludge on Scottish farms. Since cattle have to be enclosed and under cover for many months in winter, the sludge forms a regular and viable source for biogas production.

No overall assessment of biogas potential and use has been made for Scotland generally or for specific local regions.

1.2 SEAWEED

Scottish waters contain an estimated stock of 10 million tonnes (wet mass) of marine macrophytic algae. Harvest rates may reach 5 tonnes per year per km of coastline. Traditionally the harvesting of seaweed has been important in island and coastal economies, and it is not unreasonable to consider fuel value for the resource alongside the value for chemical and agricultural use. For instance the digestion of one tonne of wet seaweed (80% moisture content) could produce 4000 kWh–1(14 GJ) of heat from the methane, (Palz 1980), but in practice yields are likely to be very much less (∼3GJ) than this theoretical value (Van Brakel 1980).

1.3 FERMENTATION

The fermentation of grain and distillation of ethyl alcohol for whisky production is of prime economic importance in Scotland. There is a long manufacturing experience and related on-going research by some wealthy companies. Clearly this expertise could be used for the benefit of fuel alcohol production, but there is little indication of this happening. The world potential market for fuel alcohol from biological crops, especially in the tropics, is of great significance and it would be encouraging to see more involvement by Scottish industry. Distilleries in Scotland are however taking increased interest in energy conservation and bye-products (Cockburn 1981).

1.4 PEAT

Peat is a traditional fuel in Scotland still important for domestic heating in some areas of the Highlands and on most Islands. In general it may be considered a non-commercial fuel since most users cut their own supplies, but local marketing firms do exist. An attempt by the N.S.H.E.B. to generate electricity from peat fuel failed some years ago but new developments are being contemplated, for example peat combustion in fluidised beds or part combustion for pyrolytic production of gas. There are indications that the use of peat is now increasing in Scotland after many years of decline. Peat should however not be classed as a renewable resource, especially if harvested intensively.

1.5 WOOD AND FORESTRY

Forestry is extensive in Scotland, with the U.K. headquarters of the Forestry Commission based in Edinburgh. Wood is primarily considered a resource for paper making and building material. There is no official policy or evaluation of wood as an energy source. This is both surprising and unfortunate since in most developing and many developed countries such policies and evaluations exist. However Scottish University Departments and private organisations have considerable experience in the area of wood fuel sources and use (Mitchell 1981, Fraser 1981).

The sales of wood burning stoves have increased rapidly in Scotland over recent years, and there can be little doubt of the desire to use wood fuel when supplies are available.

1.6 BIOLOGICAL WASTE

It is of the greatest importance with all biofuels, including those considered previously, to consider energy supply options from otherwise waste materials (Porteus 1981). Municipal waste in Scotland probably totals 2 × 10⁶ t y–1 having a heat of combustion equivalent to 0.4 × 10⁶ t y–1 of coal. Energy use options include combustion from thermal and electrical power, and anaerobic digestion in open dumps for methane generation.

1.7 BRACKEN

Serious proposals are being made for the potential of bracken harvesting for biofuels and land improvement (Callaghan 1981).

2 HYDRO

Within the U.K., the only nationalised energy service named with the responsibility for a renewable supply is the North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board. It was never intended that hydro power should be the sole supply of power by the Board, but the uniqueness of local supply options and use in the Highlands and Islands led to a special Act of Parliament to establish the Board in 1943 (HMSO 1943). Hydro power was then seen to be a major development opportunity for Scotland, and from the onset these developments were linked with ideals for social improvement in the Board’s areas. This 1943 Act should be compulsory reading for all those seeking to relate energy supply to development, since it foreshadows many of the development ideals promoted by the United Nations, World Bank, International Labour Office and other world development agencies.

Between 1943 and 1970 the Hydro Board established 54 hydro generating stations each with a capacity to supply from 130 MW to 0.5 MW. The total capacity established was 1052 MW producing a yearly average of 3 × 10⁶ MWh of power to the Scottish grid. The Board’s generating cost of hydro electricity is now 0.7 p kWh–1, which is 3 times less than its thermal generation and about 5 times less than its diesel generation. A full account of these activities is given in the Annual Reports of the N.S.H.B. It is unfortunate that a historical account of the Board’s work has not been written. With an awakening interest in renewable energy supplies in the 1980s such an account would be of great practical value as well as interest.

The 1965 Annual Report of the Hydro Board listed a further 483 MW of hydro potential which to date has never been developed. The cessation of the hydro programme was due to a combination of causes, including the potential of cheaper oil, aspiration for nuclear power and opposition because of environmental disturbance. The 483 MW potential included sites of medium scale, but did not extend to a comprehensive survey of much smaller sites. It is possible however that further hydro development will occur in the 1980s (N.S. H.E.B. 1981, Francis 1981).

The South of Scotland Electricity Board generates 0.3 × 10⁶ MWh y–1 of hydro power from an installed capacity of 123 MW, to produce its cheapest electricity at 0.26p kWh–1 (S.S.E.B. 1980) which is 7 times less than from nuclear generation.

The construction of the Scottish hydro system gave valuable experience to a number of engineering firms that later utilised this expertise to gain overseas orders. Sir Alexander Gibb and Partners was one such firm of consultant engineers who continued with major hydro projects in Africa and elsewhere. The role of Scotland as a technical proving ground for renewable supplies that later extended on a World scale is thus recorded in history, and sets a precedent that other options might follow.

There are a number (probably 100) of examples of small scale (5 kW – 500 kW) hydro electric generating plants in Scotland. There is no comprehensive study of these, but the potential for small hydro power in helping those not connected to the grid has been assessed (SRT 1978). Some small private systems sell excess power to the grid, so providing control for the equipment and income for the owner. There has been no comprehensive study of the full potential for small hydro in Scotland (unlike England and Wales, Francis 1981), although discussions are in hand by a University group with the Department of Energy. A recent encouragement has been the manufacture by McKellar Engineering of Granton-on-Spey of a new low head 5 to 15 kW system with electronic load control. This system was devised by Mr. P. Agnew of Glasgow University, and the business enterprise supported by the Highland and Islands Development Board.

3 GEOTHERMAL

Possible geothermal sources of low grade heat have been suggested within the central lowland regions of Scotland and the North Sea (ETSU 1976). However this resource is generally regarded to be of far less potential than other alternatives, despite the great need for low temperature space and process heat. There has been no full investigation of geothermal potential in Scotland.

4 SOLAR

The variation of yearly insolation on a horizontal surface from the North to the South of the U.K. is indicated by Fig. 3. The long daylight hours in Scotland produce a relative increase in summer insolation, but there is a dramatic decrease in winter. This ostensibly depressing factor is somewhat relieved by considering insolation on a vertical surface (of more importance for building space heat) and the long space heating season in Scotland, as discussed below.

Fig. 3 (a) Variation of solar radiation at European sites from Southern to Northern latitude.

(b) Proportion of the annual heating load that could be supplied by solar passive and active energy for standard housing.

From MacGregor (1981b) with permission.

The Scottish Solar Energy Group (appendix A) is the first renewable energy association to be formed in Scotland.

4.1 PASSIVE SOLAR ENERGY

Domestic energy requires 28% of primary energy in the U.K. (D.O.E. 1981b). The proportion generally in Scotland may be higher, and in rural and island localities can be 40% (Barbour 1981). MacGregor (1981) has shown that the proportion of the yearly heating load that can be met by passive solar input into buildings increases with increase in latitude across Europe, Fig. 3. It is therefore encouraging that some planning authorities, building firms and individuals are taking an interest in ‘solar design’. Even so there are only about 5 building projects designed to maximize solar gain (see appendix for details), and only one of these is in the Highland and Island areas where special conditions including high wind related energy losses can occur.

The importance of developing energy efficient buildings have been analysed in a recent E.T.S.U. sponsored report (Energy Conscious Design, 1981). With minimal design changes 30% energy reductions can be obtained, and this can be increased to 70% with additional expenditure. No final analysis is available to judge the operation of any of the energy and building projects in Scotland.

4.2 CROP DRYING

The drying of grain and hay is an increasing financial and energy burden on farmers. It is therefore encouraging that one national laboratory, the Scottish Institute of Agricultural Engineering at Penicuik, near Edinburgh, has constructed and is testing a solar drying and storage barn (Bailey 1981). It is likely that straw-burning driers – an indirect use of solar energy – will be important for drying at farm level.

4.3 SOLAR WATER HEATING

No independent assessment has been made of the number of solar water heating installations in Scotland. From manufacturer’s claims and personal experience, we estimate there are between 500 and 800 installations predominantly purchased during the last 3 years. The U.K. Solar Trade Association has two member organisations based in Scotland, one of whom reports very substantial business. Other firms are engaged in installation. For the U.K. generally, the solar water heating industry is regulated and cooperates with E.T.S.U., the Solar Energy office at Cardiff University and the U.K. Solar Trade Association which has 70 member firms in the U.K.

The economic value of solar water heaters is generally considered to be borderline. Much depends on the operating temperatures, the cost of the displaced heating fuel, and the capital cost of the installation. The other obvious factors are insolation and system efficiency. Most of these variables will be different for Scotland than England (or elsewhere) and so it is most unfortunate that no technical and economic assessment has been undertaken and completed by independent agencies in Scotland.

4.4 FOCUSED SOLAR COLLECTORS

The relatively small proportions of direct solar radiation negates the uses of focused collectors in Scotland.

4.5 PHOTOVOLTAICS

Scottish Physics Departments at Dundee and Heriot-Watt Universities have pioneered research on amorphous silicon devices. A few working photovoltaic silicon crystal systems are used for remote telecommunication stations (Riddoch 1980). A 30kW generating system is planned to be installed on a Scottish island after development at Marchwood Power Station (TREBLE