Hydraulic Fracturing Explained: Evaluation, Implementation, and Challenges

Hydraulic Fracturing Explained

Evaluation, Implementation and Challenges

Erle C. Donaldson

Waqi Alam

Nasrin Begum

Tetrahedron, Inc

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

List of Figures

List of Tables

Nomenclature

Acronyms/Abbreviations

Symbols

Greek Letters

CHAPTER 1. Hydraulic Fracturing Explained

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Petroleum Hydrocarbons

1.3 Petroleum Reserves in Shale

1.4 Petroleum Demand

1.5 Achieving Production of Hydrocarbons to Meet Demand

1.6 Hydraulic Fracturing

1.7 Environmental Issues Related to Hydraulic Fracturing

CHAPTER 2. Evaluation of Gas-Shale Formations

2.1 Sedimentary Formations

2.2 Shale Formations

2.3 Multistage Fractures

2.4 Fracture Design (Frac-Implementation)

2.5 Well Design from Surface to Reservoir

2.6 Gas-Shale Reservoir Characterization

2.7 Gamma-Ray Well-Log

2.8 Density/Neutron Log

2.9 Use of Seismic Data

CHAPTER 3. Rock Mechanics of Fracturing

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Young's Modulus of Elasticity (E)

3.3 Poisson's Ratio (v)

3.4 Bulk Modulus (KB)

3.5 Shear Modulus (G)

3.6 Effective Stress

3.7 Mohr Stress Diagram

3.8 Initiation of Fractures

3.9 Propping the Fracture Open

CHAPTER 4. Fracture Fluids

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Oil-Based Fracturing Fluids

4.3 Water-Based Frac-Fluids

4.4 Alcohol-based Frac-fluids

4.5 Acid Frac-Fluid

4.6 Foams

4.7 Slick-Water

4.8 Surfactants

4.9 Clay Stabilizers

4.10 Temperature Stabilizers

4.11 Fluid-Loss Additives

4.12 Viscosity Breakers

4.13 Biocides

4.14 Buffers

4.15 Frac-Fluid Preparation

4.16 Conclusion

CHAPTER 5. Field Implementation of Hydraulic Fracturing

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Protecting Groundwater

5.3 Waste Water Management in Hydraulic Fracture

5.4 Fresh Water Management in Hydraulic Fracturing

5.5 Reducing Surface Disturbance

5.6 Controlling Noise, Lighting, and Traffic at Fracturing Job Sites

5.7 Technical Considerations for the Success of Hydraulic Fracture Treatments

5.8 Case Studies of Hydraulic Fracturing

CHAPTER 6. Environmental Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing

6.1 Surface and Subsurface Environmental Effects

6.2 Water Withdrawals

6.3 Surface Spills

6.4 Wastewater Management

6.5 Air Emissions

6.6 Water Impoundments

6.7 Human Health Impacts

6.8 Where to Get Toxicity Information

6.9 Chemicals Present In Hydraulic Fracturing Fluid

6.10 Chemicals Present in Flow-Back Fluids

6.11 Regulations for Protecting the Environment

6.12 Regulations Currently Applicable

APPENDIX A. Viscosity

A.1 Power-Law Fluids

APPENDIX B. Surfactants, Emulsions, Gels, Foams

B.1 Surfactants

B.2 Emulsions

B.3 Foams

APPENDIX C. Calculations

C.1 Subsurface Overburden and Horizontal Stress

C.2 Fracture Initiation Pressure

C.3 Fracture Propagation Pressure

C.4 Matrix Permeability

C.5 Fracture Size

C.6 Rock Matrix Mechanical Properties

C.7 Summary

Glossary

References

Index

Copyright

Hydraulic Fracturing Explained: Evaluation, Implementation and Challenges

Copyright © 2013 Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Gulf Publishing Company

2 Greenway Plaza, Suite 1020

Houston, TX 77046

ISBN: 978-1-933762-40-1

10    9    8    7    6    5    4    3    2    1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Donaldson, Erle C.

Hydraulic fracturing explained : evaluation, implementation, and challenges / Erle C. Donaldson, Waqi Alam, and Nasrin Begum, Tetrahedron, Inc.

pages cm. – (Gulf drilling series)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-933762-40-3 (978-1-933762-40-1 : alk. paper)

1. Oil wells–Hydraulic fracturing. I. Alam, Waqi. II. Begum, Nasrin. III. Title.

TN871.D584 2013

622′.338–dc23

2012047687

Printed in the United States of America

Printed on acid-free paper. ∞

Production services and design by TIPS Technical Publishing, Inc.

Dedication

This book is dedicated to Dr. George V. Chilingar who has devoted his life's work to the education of many generations of students that have passed through the hall of the University of Southern California. Dr. Chilingar has also enhanced the knowledge of countless engineers and scientists around the world with a stream of fine technical books that have resulted from his untiring encouragement and assistance to countless co-authors of multiple technical books, and others that he authored and edited through the years. I am personally grateful for his guidance and patient advice throughout my own career.

Erle C. Donaldson

This book is also dedicated to all the engineers and scientists who have contributed to the methods of development of energy that is sustainable and fuels our economic growth in a responsible manner. Dedication is also made to our parents, teachers, family members, and friends who inspired us in doing the right things in life.

Waqi Alam and Nasrin Begum

Foreword

The development of natural gas production from shale beds, which were previously by-passed, has expanded rapidly during the past 20 years. This development took place as a result of the improved technology of horizontal well drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Development of this new hydrocarbon resource in many areas that have not previously been impacted by oil production has increased the awareness of this activity with consequent questions regarding the technology, surface environmental impacts, and concerns of fresh water aquifer contamination by the practice of hydraulic fracturing. Hydraulic fracturing is noteworthy because of the relatively large amount of specialized equipment required for its implementation.

Shale gas is gradually increasing in importance as a natural hydrocarbon resource that has the potential for replacing a high percentage of the petroleum products currently in large demand. In fact, several large natural gas producing companies are contemplating the introduction of liquefied natural gas stations along the network of automotive express highways for use by vehicles equipped with engines that use natural gas. Thus natural gas may one day fulfill a large part of the demand for automotive energy and ease the future reliance on economically volatile imported hydrocarbon energy sources.

Fresh water aquifers near the surface are protected by state and federal regulations and refinements of technology. The accurate assessment of subsurface stress conditions and the mathematics of rock mechanics predict the size and extent of fractures with great accuracy. The use of micro-seismic monitoring during fracture propagation to precisely follow the actual growth and extent of the induced fractures in real time have all increased the precision of the technology. In addition, the practice of maintaining the integrity of overlying formations above the shale formation that is being exploited and the near-surface fresh water aquifers is an added safeguard.

At the end of the fracture stimulation (that uses as much as 2 to 4 million gallons of water) there is a period when a considerable amount (as much as 30%) of frac-fluid flows back to the surface when the well is placed on production. This fluid contains some of the special chemicals that make up the frac-fluid mixed with brine from the formation. This flow-back fracture fluid and formation brine is collected for proper disposal as authorized by state and federal regulations. In some cases the fluid is injected into a deep brine subsurface formation where it is permanently sequestered. If the flow-back can be recovered for reuse in another nearby fracture stimulation project, it will be collected in a tank and moved to the new site since this is most economical for the company. In any case, the water will be treated and processed for proper disposal or re-use; and a vigorous research program is on-going for development of new methods for treating water produced from shale gas operations for reuse.

This book is designed to explain the geological aspects (rock mechanics) of hydraulic fracturing in terms that can easily be understood, the technology of hydraulic fracturing and fluids used in the process, and the environmental concerns that have developed as part of the process. Mathematical concepts have been presented in their simplest form with careful attention to the explanation of the theories involved. Some theoretical issues have been removed from the text but are included as appendices for more comprehensive explanations. A few example calculations have also been incorporated as Appendix C for further analyses. A glossary of special terms has been attached and all acronyms used in the text are explained in the Nomenclature.

Preface

The technology and applications of hydraulic fracturing have enjoyed tremendous growth following advancements of (1) horizontal directional drilling, (2) micro-seismic monitoring of drilling and fracture growth, (3) development of digital imaging software, and (4) the discovery of slick-water (addition of a polymer to fracture fluid that reduced the conductor tubing pressure loss of injected fluids). The first three blossomed together in the 1990s and underwent rapid refinement into the following decade when they were joined by the introduction of slick-water for fracturing gas-shale.

The developments of hydraulic fracturing technology were coupled to the excitement of the rapid discoveries of gas-shale around the world that could suddenly be produced economically and efficiently. This enormously complex endeavor burst into the public domain under a dark cloud of suspicion when allegations of careless, or inept, applications resulting in shallow fresh water contamination by fluids and gas began to appear in widely read publications. Part of the problem seemed to be a lack of understanding of the process: the use of chemical compounds for friction control, fluid viscosity enhancement to enable the conduct of proppants (generally graded sand), corrosion control, and the enormous amount of fluid that is required to fracture sections of long horizontal wells. Two fine, very technical, publications by the Society of Petroleum Engineers: Reservoir Stimulation and Recent Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing were available along with multiple papers of conferences specifically addressing hydraulic fracturing. All of these are readily available, but the problem associated with them is that they are written at a level that is understood only by engineers. Clearly, there is a need for a comprehensive text on the subject that can explain the salient technical aspects of the art in terms that can be readily understood by anyone who is truly interested in learning about the amazing technical advances that make hydraulic fracturing possible with fine controls that yield great technical precision in its application. That is the purpose and aim of this book.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance received from Tetrahedron, Inc., specifically Mr. Daniel Ewald and Ms. Andrea Bouwkamp, in conducting literature search and drafting. Also, our gratitude goes to Mr. Robert A. Hefner IV for his encouragement and advice during the writing of this book.

List of Figures