Thermal Insulation Handbook for the Oil, Gas, and Petrochemical Industries

Thermal Insulation Handbook for the Oil, Gas, and Petrochemical Industries

Alireza Bahadori, PhD

School of Environment, Science & Engineering, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

About the Author

Chapter One. Design and Application of Thermal Insulation

1.1. Purpose of Thermal Insulation

1.2. Design Considerations

1.3. Selection of Thermal Insulating Systems

1.4. Design Considerations

1.5. Heat Transfer Through Insulation

1.6. Economic Thickness of Insulation

1.7. Methods of Obtaining Economic Thickness

1.8. Hot Insulation Thickness

1.9. Cold Insulation Thickness

1.10. Calculation of Thickness of Insulating Material Required to Prevent Condensation

1.11. Heat-Traced Pipe: Insulation Thickness

1.12. Relationship of System Requirements to the Design of Insulation Systems and to the Properties of Materials Used

1.13. General Application of Thermal Insulation

1.14. Characteristics of Insulating and Accessory Materials

1.15. Consideration of Characteristics of Accessory Materials

1.16. Selection of Insulation and Accessory Materials

1.17. Fastening Materials

1.18. Jacketing Materials

1.19. Finishing Materials

1.20. Rapid Estimation of Heat Losses from Oil and Gas Process Piping and Equipment Surfaces

1.21. Corrosion Considerations in Design and Application of Thermal Insulation

Chapter Two. Thermal Insulation Installations

2.1. Phases

2.2. Installation System Details

2.3. Application Procedure

2.4. Extent of Insulation

2.5. Hot Insulation

2.6. Cold Insulation

2.7. Finishes

2.8. Methods of Insulation Application

2.9. Hot Insulation Application

2.10. Valves, Flanges, and Fittings

2.11. Cold Insulation Application

2.12. Valves, Flanges, Fittings, and Irregular Surfaces

2.13. Cold Spheres

2.14. Prefabricated Underground Pipe Systems

2.15. Inspection and Maintenance of Existing Insulation Systems

2.16. Surface Preparation for Thermal Insulation Installation

2.17. Degreasing

Chapter Three. Material Selection for Thermal Insulation

3.1. Mineral Fiber Preformed Pipe Thermal Insulation

3.2. Mineral Fiber Block and Board Thermal Insulation

3.3. Mineral Fiber Blanket and Blanket-Type Pipe Thermal Insulation

3.4. Calcium Silicate Preformed Block and Pipe Thermal Insulation

3.5. Cellular Glass/Foam Glass Thermal Insulation

3.6. Corkboard and Cork Pipe Thermal Insulation

3.7. Spray-Applied Rigid-Cellular Polyurethane (PUR) and Polyisocyanurate (PIR) Thermal Insulation

3.8. Preformed Rigid-Cellular Polyurethane (PUR) and Polyisocyanurate (PIR) Thermal Insulation

3.9. Miscellaneous Materials to Be Used with Thermal Insulation

Chapter Four. Cryogenic Insulation Systems for LNG Industries

4.1. Polyurethane

4.2. Multilayer Insulation: Super Insulation

4.3. Foam Insulation

4.4. Perlite

4.5. Cetrafoam

4.6. Other Insulation Systems

4.7. Cryogenic Insulation System Performance

4.8. Armaflex Cryogenic Systems

4.9. Aerogels

4.10. Cryogenic Vacuum Pipe

Chapter Five. Thermal Insulation for Offshore Installations in Deep Water

5.1. Steady and Transient Solutions for Flowline Temperature

5.2. Materials Development

5.3. Flow Assurance: Thermal Reach

5.4. Insulation Material Selection

Definitions and Terminology

Bibliography, References, and Further Reading

Index

Copyright

Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bahadori, Alireza.

Thermal insulation handbook for the oil, gas, and petrochemical industries / Alireza Bahadori.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-12-800010-6

1. Petroleum pipelines–Insulation–Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Petroleum industry and trade–Equipment and supplies–Protection–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.

TN879.57.B34 2014

621.402'4--dc23

2013046422

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-800010-6

For information on all Gulf Professional Publishing publications visit our web site at store.elsevier.com

Printed and bound in USA

14 15 16 17 18 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Dedication

Dedicated to my wife (Megan), the loving memory of my parents, grandparents and to all who contributed so much to my work over the years

Preface

In times of high energy prices and great strains on the environment, efficient insulation systems are of the utmost importance. Fast worldwide population growth is leading to quickly increasing energy demand. To maintain the standard of living in industrialized countries and to improve the situation in developing countries, the issues surrounding energy consumption cannot be avoided and energy can be used much more efficiently and with a higher share of renewable sources.

The most important part of the energy strategy of any country is energy saving. Because of the limited energy sources and environmental pollution arising from the use of fuels, energy saving has become compulsory.

Oil, gas, and petrochemical processing plants contain intricate and costly piping configurations. Piping systems are also employed in many other situations including water supply, fire protection, and district cooling-heating applications. In the petroleum production industry, the hot oil/gas composition flows up at the wellhead and is transported through manifolds, various critical instruments, spools, and flowlines before the riser brings the oil to the surface. Insulation is necessary to avoid the formation of hydrate plugs and wax buildup (paraffin). The formation of wax and hydrates will start when the oil/gas composition is depressurized and exposed to the low seawater temperature at the seabed.

Thermal insulation materials are applied in order to prevent the formation of hydrate/wax during a shutdown scenario. During shutdown the extra insulation gives sufficient time for:

• Short time inspection of the pipe/equipment

• Solving production problems, etc.

• Methanol or glycol injection (probably long-term maintenance services).

Thermal insulation materials like other natural or man-made materials vary with the nature of material and the influencing temperature range. The use of thermal insulation should be so arranged that the optimum effectiveness is derived from all components of the complete system, bearing in mind always any economic limitations that may be imposed by the purchaser.

This engineering book provides the minimum requirements for thermal insulation of pipework, vessels, tanks, and equipment in temperatures up to 800°C but excludes structural insulation of buildings, fireproofing structures, refractory lining of plants, and external underground mains. On the basis of the temperature the thermal insulating is divided into two different systems as follows:

• Hot system, which is applicable in the temperature range of +5°C to 800°C.

• Cold system, which is applicable in the temperature range of -165°C to +5°C.

The book is intended for use in the oil, gas, and petrochemical and similar industries mainly for refineries, chemical, petrochemical, and natural gas plants.

The book gives minimum requirements for insulation systems, including insulation materials of sufficient quality and thicknesses, weatherproofing, and finishing.

The required life of the insulation systems should be considered because this affects the annual cost and hence the economic thickness. If the plant has only a short life, an inexpensive insulation system may be considered; if the plant has a longer life maybe a more expensive thermal insulation type should be considered as it may actually be more economical.

In order to guarantee the liquefied natural gas (LNG) cold temperature of −165°C, high-quality insulation installation in accordance with strict specifications is essential. Cryogenic insulation restricts the inflow of atmospheric heat into the pipe or process equipment, keeping the liquid cold and allowing it to retain its form.

Also, consideration should be given individually to systems for pipework, to flat surfaces (e.g., air ducts, gas flues, walls of drying ovens, walls of large boilers, etc.), and to vessels, tanks, and large curved surfaces. The components of the system should be appropriate to the specific requirements of use. Generally, materials to be exposed to outdoor weather will differ from those used indoors, if only in the type of finish employed. Different types of system are likely to be required for the various ranges of application.

In addition, there is discussion on the design basis of thermal insulation including selection of a system, corrosion under thermal insulation, and general application of insulation. Also, the characteristics and selection of insulation and accessory materials will be presented.

Thermal insulation is a critical element in the design and operation of flowlines in deep waters due to a combination of low temperatures and high pressure; as a result of these conditions, there are stringent requirements for optimal insulation.

This technical book contains all matters relating to heat and cold insulation and provides engineering information for technically demanding solutions. The scope of the book includes:

• Dimensioning of insulation systems in accordance with ecological and economic considerations

• Development of high-temperature and cryogenic insulation concepts

• Qualifying materials and systems

The required thickness of insulation for any specific application depends upon the characteristics of the insulating material and the purpose of the equipment. When the sole object is to achieve the minimum total cost, the appropriate thickness is known as the economic thickness. If the economic thickness is required to be calculated the following additional information will be necessary:

Cost of heat to be used for calculation purposes, e.g., US $ per useful megajoule

Evaluation period (working hours)

Whether or not the cost of finish is to be included in the calculation

When the base of insulation is conservation of energy, the economically accepted insulation thicknesses should be used.

For any specific set of installation requirements, the properties of a material determine its suitability. If there were only one, or a limited number of sets of installation requirements, selection of a material would be simple, and the need for all the various types of insulations and weather barriers reduced. However, this is not the case. Each installation must be considered, and its requirements evaluated to allow the selection of the best-suited material (or materials) for the individual installation under consideration.

Not only do the installation requirements change with the individual case, but also the relative importance of the requirements also vary. So all the above technical issues are discussed in the book.

Moreover, this book covers the minimum requirements for composition, sizes, dimensions, physical properties, inspection, packaging, and marking of various types of insulation for use on different surfaces.

Alireza Bahadori, School of Environment, Science & Engineering, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia August 20th, 2013

About the Author

Alireza Bahadori, PhD, is a research staff member in the School of Environment, Science & Engineering at Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia. He received his PhD from Curtin University, Western Australia. For the better part of 20 years, Dr. Bahadori has held various process engineering positions and been involved in many large-scale projects at NIOC, Petroleum Development Oman (PDO), and Clough AMEC PTY LTD.

He is the author of over 200 articles and 8 books which have been accepted and/or published by many prestigious publishers. Dr. Bahadori is the recipient of the highly competitive and prestigious Australian Government’s Endeavour International Postgraduate Research Award as part of his research in the oil and gas area. He also received a Top-Up Award from the State Government of Western Australia through the Western Australia Energy Research Alliance (WA:ERA) in 2009. Dr. Bahadori serves as a member of the editorial board for a number of journals such as the Journal of Sustainable Energy Engineering.

Chapter One

Design and Application of Thermal Insulation

Abstract

This chapter covers the minimum requirements for thermal insulation of pipework, vessels, tanks, and other equipment. It is aimed at thermal insulation usage in the oil, gas, petrochemical, and other similar industries mainly for refineries, chemical, petrochemical, and natural gas processing plants. The chapter explains the fundamental requirements for insulation systems, including insulation materials of sufficient quality and thicknesses, weatherproofing, and finishing. Also, there is discussion on the design issues related to thermal insulation, including selection of the thermal insulation system, corrosion under thermal insulation, and the general applications of insulation. In addition, the characteristics and selection of insulation and accessory materials are presented.

Keywords

Thermal insulation; thermal conductivity; optimum thickness; economic insulation thickness; thermal efficiency; cold insulation thickness; hot insulation thickness; characteristics of insulating materials; personnel protection; vapor barrier; conservation of energy; fastening materials; finishing material; heat loss; corrosion

Contents

1.1. Purpose of Thermal Insulation 3

1.2. Design Considerations 5

1.2.1. Location 5

1.2.2. Dimensions of Surfaces 5

1.2.3. Temperature Conditions 6

1.2.4. Preparation of Surfaces 7

1.2.5. Type of Insulation Required 7

1.2.6. Type of Finish Required 7

1.2.7. Special Service Requirements 7

1.2.8. Basis on Which the Thickness of Insulation Is Determined 7

1.2.9. Information to Be Supplied by the Manufacturers of Insulation 8

1.2.10. Types and Application 8

1.3. Selection of Thermal Insulating Systems 11

1.3.1. Optimum Effectiveness 11

1.3.2. Extent of System 12

1.3.3. Factors for Consideration 13

1.4. Design Considerations 15

1.4.1. Economic Thickness 15

1.4.2. Applications for Which Economic Thicknesses Are Not Appropriate 16

1.4.3. Effect of Air Spaces 16

1.4.4. Thermal Efficiency 17

1.4.5. Specified Conditions at the Point of Delivery 17

1.4.6. Protection of Boundary Surfaces 18

1.4.7. Clearance Between Insulation and the Surrounding Surfaces 18

1.4.8. Provision for Differential Thermal Movement 18

1.4.9. Provision for Preventing Settlement and Cracking 20

1.4.10. Insulation of Pipes in Ducts and Subways 20

1.4.11. Fire Hazards 21

1.4.12. Insulation Against Freezing 21

1.4.13. Protection Against Surface Condensation 22

1.4.14. Vapor Barriers 22

1.5. Heat Transfer Through Insulation 32

1.5.1. Correlation Approach for the Estimation of Thermal Insulation Thickness 37

1.5.2. A Graphical Technique for the Estimation of Thermal Insulation Thickness 47

1.6. Economic Thickness of Insulation 54

1.7. Methods of Obtaining Economic Thickness 54

1.7.1. Economic Thickness by Tabulation 54

1.7.2. Economic Thickness by Algebraic Solution 56

1.7.3. Method of Calculation 57

1.7.4. Examples of Calculation of Economic Thickness 59

1.7.5. Simple Correlation for Estimation of Economic Thickness of Thermal Insulation 65

1.8. Hot Insulation Thickness 72

1.9. Cold Insulation Thickness 74

1.10. Calculation of Thickness of Insulating Material Required to Prevent Condensation 74

1.10.1. Examples 78

1.11. Heat-Traced Pipe: Insulation Thickness 82

1.12. Relationship of System Requirements to the Design of Insulation Systems and to the Properties of Materials Used 82

1.13. General Application of Thermal Insulation 86

1.13.1. Conditions in Which Thermal Insulation Shall Be Applied 86

1.13.2. Personnel Protection 93

1.14. Characteristics of Insulating and Accessory Materials 94

1.14.1. Consideration of Characteristics of Insulating Materials 94

1.14.2. Suitability for Service Temperature 97

1.14.3. Thermal Expansion 98

1.14.4. Resistance to Compaction 98

1.14.5. Resistance to Water Vapor Penetration and to Water Absorption 98

1.14.6. Mechanical Strength 99

1.14.7. Durability 99

1.14.8. Fire and Explosion Hazards 99

1.14.9. Chemical Resistance 100

1.14.10. Optimum Life 101

1.14.11. Optimum Heat Capacity 101

1.14.12. Freedom from Objectionable Odor 101

1.14.13. Maintenance Requirements 101

1.14.14. Thermal Expansions 102

1.14.15. Resistance to Compaction 102

1.14.16. Resistance to Vermin and Fungus 102

1.15. Consideration of Characteristics of Accessory Materials 102

1.15.1. Vapor Barriers 102

1.15.2. Vapor Barriers for Use over Insulation on Surfaces Below Dew Point 103

1.15.3. Vapor Barriers for Use over Insulation on Surfaces Above Dew Point 103

1.15.4. Finishing Materials 103

1.15.5. Securing Materials 104

1.15.6. Mechanical Securements 107

1.16. Selection of Insulation and Accessory Materials 107

1.16.1. Thermal Insulating Materials 108

1.16.2. Summary of Insulation Types 116

1.17. Fastening Materials 117

1.17.1. Banding 117

1.17.2. Miscellaneous Fastening Materials 117

1.18. Jacketing Materials 120

1.19. Finishing Materials 120

1.20. Rapid Estimation of Heat Losses from Oil and Gas Process Piping and Equipment Surfaces 121

1.20.1. Development of Simple Predictive Tool 125

1.21. Corrosion Considerations in Design and Application of Thermal Insulation 129

1.21.1. Corrosion of Steel under Insulation 131

1.21.2. Acidic Corrosion 134

1.21.3. Alkaline Corrosive Attack 135

1.21.4. Intergranular Corrosion 135

1.21.5. Bimetallic (Galvanic) Corrosion 135

1.21.6. Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) of Stainless Steel under Insulation 136

1.21.7. Stress Corrosion Attack on Other Metals 139

1.21.8. Attack by Liquid Metals 142

1.1. Purpose of Thermal Insulation

Various thermal insulation systems taking advantage of different types of thermal insulation materials on both an organic (such as expanded plastics, wood, wool, cork, straw, technical hemp) and inorganic (such as foamed glass, glass, and mineral fibers) basis are being designed and tested, and new methods for analyzing the properties of both insulation materials and insulation systems are being devised. The particular products differ in their shape, flammability, composition, and structure, which in relation to designers’ requirements define the possibilities of their application in engineering practice.

Researchers in thermal science are attempting to minimize capital and operation costs as well as heat loss. In previous works multiple objective functions were applied by researchers for the design analysis of a piping system to minimize the heat loss and the amount of insulation used.

In these types of complicated methods, a common approach is to sum all objective functions with appropriate weighting factors, and minimize the resulting composite function. However, the analytical solution should only be attempted if a very precise value of thickness is needed because it takes into account specific details and often is not a requirement from a practical viewpoint as many types of insulation are available only in certain specific sizes.

The required thickness of insulation for any specific application depends on the characteristics of insulating material as well as the purpose of the equipment. If a process is critical, the most important single consideration may be reliability. If conservation of heat or power is the deciding factor, the savings per year as compared to the installed cost is the most important factor.

In contrast, when insulation is to be used for a temporary function such as holding the heat in while a lining is being heat cured, then the lowest possible installed cost would be decisive. Thus, because of conflicting requirements, there can be no multipurpose insulation. Nor is there a perfect insulation for each set of requirements.

A low thermal conductivity is desirable to achieve a maximum resistance to heat transfer. Therefore, for any given heat loss, a material of low thermal conductivity will be thinner than an alternative material of high conductivity. This is of particular advantage for process pipes because thinner layers of insulation reduce the surface area emitting heat and also reduce the outer surface that requires protection. The main purpose of insulation is to limit the transfer of energy between the inside and outside of a system.

A thermal insulator is a poor conductor of heat and has a low thermal conductivity. Insulation is used in buildings and in manufacturing processes to prevent heat loss or heat gain. Although its primary purpose is an economic one, it also provides more accurate control of process temperatures and protection of personnel. It prevents condensation on cold surfaces and the resulting corrosion. Such materials are porous, containing large number of dormant air cells. Figure 1.1 shows a sample application of thermal insulation in industry.

Figure 1.1   Sample thermal insulation applications. (Source: Trelleborg).

Thermal insulation may be applied for one or a combination of the following purposes:

• Saving energy by reducing the rate of heat transfer

• Maintenance of process temperature

• Prevention of freezing, condensation, vaporization, or formation of undesirable compounds such as hydrates

• Protection of personnel from injury through contact with equipment

• Prevention of condensation on surface of equipment conveying fluids at low temperature

• Avoidance of increase in equipment temperature from outside fire

• To conserve refrigeration

• Offers better process control by maintaining process temperature

• Prevention of corrosion by keeping the exposed surface of a refrigerated system above the dew point

• Absorption of vibration.

1.2. Design Considerations

Below is a discussion of parameters that must be considered when designing insulation materials.

1.2.1. Location

• Whether indoors, outdoors but protected, outdoors exposed to weather, enclosed in ducts or trenches below ground level, underground and/or underwater

• Difficult or unusual site conditions that will influence the selection or application of insulating materials, or both, e.g., in regard to transport, scaffolding, weather protection or excessive humidity

• Type of material to be insulated, with details of special or unusual materials.

1.2.2. Dimensions of Surfaces

If these are adequately detailed on drawings (preferably colored to indicate areas to be insulated), the provision of copies of the drawings may be sufficient; otherwise detailed information will be required, e.g.,

• Surface dimensions of flat or large curved areas

• External diameters of pipes

• Lengths of each size of pipe

• Number and type of pipe fittings, e.g., flanged joints, valves, tees, expansion bends.

1.2.3. Temperature Conditions

• Normal working temperature for each portion of the plant to be insulated

• Maximum temperature for each hot surface, if higher than the normal working temperature

• Ambient temperature: where a specified temperature is required on the outer surface of the insulation.

A specified temperature on the surface of the insulation may be required for the following:

• To protect personnel, e.g., local insulation of hot pipes

• To provide comfortable conditions at certain locations, e.g., at control panels and in operating galleries

• To provide a means of indicating the effectiveness of the insulation. This should generally be avoided, as the surface temperature will depend upon the diameter over the insulation, on the ambient conditions, and on the nature of the outer surface.

• Pipes of small diameter will show relatively low surface temperatures, but high rates of heat loss; air flow over the outer surface will tend to reduce the surface temperature but will increase the rate of heat loss; a polished metal surface will show appreciable increase in surface temperature compared with a nonmetallic finish, although the rate of heat loss will be reduced.

• It may be necessary also to give the conditions of ambient air for which the surface temperature is to be calculated, e.g., the velocity of air passing over the surface.

• Normally, the theoretical heat loss will be based on the manufacturer’s declared value of thermal conductivity and, unless otherwise stated, it will refer to conditions of ambient still air at 20°C.

• When making use of theoretical figures, therefore, allowance has to be made for the effect of the ambient conditions at the site and for supplementary heat loss that will occur through supports, hangers, valve control wheels, and other fittings. As it is extremely difficult to measure with accuracy either the surface temperature or the heat loss from the surface of the insulation under site conditions, some reservation should be made when interpreting site measurements.

• Any requirement to prevent condensation on the warm face of an insulated pipe or vessel containing cold media.

• Details of any pipework sections that are to be trace heated, of the trace-heating method, and of the arrangements of insulation required

• Details of any sections to be left uninsulated to facilitate testing, e.g., welded and flanged joints

• Confirmation, with details, that heat will be available in insulated pipework for drying out any plastic insulating material or finishing composition.

1.2.4. Preparation of Surfaces

Requirements for the preparation of surfaces, including special requirements, e.g., for the removal of works-applied protective paint or lacquer, or for the application at the site of paint or other protective coating to the surface to be insulated, should be clearly stated.

1.2.5. Type of Insulation Required

There are two types of insulation required:

• Main insulation for each portion of a plant, e.g., preformed, plastic composition, flexible, loosefill, insulating concrete

• Insulation for bends, flanges, valves, hangers, and other fittings.

1.2.6. Type of Finish Required

The finish required could include, for example, hard-setting composition or self-setting cement, weatherproofing compound, or sheet metal.

1.2.7. Special Service Requirements

This could include, for example, resistance to compression, resistance to fire, and resistance to abnormal vibration. If there is any special hazard from contact with chemicals or oils in the plant, attention should be drawn to this.

1.2.8. Basis on Which the Thickness of Insulation Is Determined

• Specified temperature on outer surface of insulation

• Specified heat loss per unit dimension, linear or superficial

• If the economic thickness must be considered, the following additional information will be necessary:

• Cost of heat to be used for calculation purposes, e.g., dollar per useful megajoule

• Evaluation period (working hours)

• Whether or not the cost of the finish is to be included in the calculation

• Specified temperature conditions for the surfaces to be insulated. Insulation to provide specified conditions at the boundary surfaces of the containment system may be required for reasons such as:

• To avoid differential thermal expansion between the insulated surface and adjacent structures

• To prevent condensation of moisture on the internal surfaces of the containment system, e.g., in waste gas flues

• To prevent the condensation of moisture on the external surface of insulated plant containing cold media

• To ensure that the walls of the containment system are not subjected to excessive temperatures

• Specified conditions of fluid at point of delivery

• Special thickness requirements.

1.2.9. Information to Be Supplied by the Manufacturers of Insulation

• The manufacturer’s declared value of thermal conductivity appropriate to the temperature of use, plus the corresponding bulk density. The manufacturer’s declared value should include any necessary commercial tolerances. When the thermal conductivity is liable to change on aging, the aged value should be stated.

• Limitations of use, physical and chemical

• The overall thickness, with details of the thickness of the individual layers

• Information regarding the surface preparation

• The appropriate section of the code (to be specified) with which the following are in accord:

• Insulating material

• Reinforcement (if any)

• Fixing devices and finishes.

1.2.10. Types and Application

• Temperature ranges

    Insulation can be classified into three groups according to the temperature ranges for which they are used.

• Low-temperature insulation (up to 90°C)

    This range covers insulating materials for refrigerators, cold and hot water systems, storage tanks, etc. The commonly used materials are cork, wood, 85% magnesia, mineral fibers, polyurethane and expanded polystyrene, etc.

• Medium-temperature insulation (90–325°C)

    Insulators in this range are used in low-temperature heating and steam raising equipment, steam lines, flue ducts, etc. The types of materials used in this temperature range include 85% magnesia, asbestos, calcium silicate, mineral fibers, etc.

• High-temperature insulation (325°C and above)

    Typical uses of such materials are superheated steam systems, oven dryers, furnaces, etc. The most extensively used materials in this range are asbestos, calcium silicate, mineral fibers, mica- and vermiculite-based insulation, fireclay- or silica-based insulation, and ceramic fibers.

• Insulation material

    Insulation materials can also be classified into organic and inorganic types. Organic insulations are based on hydrocarbon polymers, which can be expanded to obtain high void structures. Examples include Thermocol (expanded polystyrene) and polyurethane foam (PUF).

        Inorganic insulation is based on siliceous/aluminous/calcium materials in fibrous, granular, or powder forms. Examples include mineral wool, calcium silicate, etc.

        Properties of common insulating materials follow:

• Calcium silicate

    This is used in industrial process plant piping where high service temperature and compressive strength are needed (Figure 1.2). Temperature range varies from 40 to 950°C.

• Glass mineral wool

    This is available in flexible forms, rigid slabs, and preformed pipe work sections. It is good for thermal and acoustic insulation for heating and chilling system pipelines. The temperature range of application is –10 to 500°C (Figure 1.3).

• Thermocol

    This is mainly used as cold insulation for piping and cold storage construction.

• Expanded nitrile rubber

    This is a flexible material that forms a closed cell integral vapor barrier. Originally it was developed for condensation control in refrigeration pipe work and chilled water lines; nowadays it is also used for ducting insulation for air conditioning.

Figure 1.2   Calcium silicate insulators.

• Rock mineral wool

    This is available in a range of forms from lightweight rolled products to heavy rigid slabs including preformed pipe sections. In addition to good thermal insulation properties, it can also provide acoustic insulation and is fire retardant.

Figure 1.3   Glass mineral wool.

Table 1.1

Thermal Conductivity of Hot Insulation

• Use of molded insulation

    Lagging materials can be obtained in bulk, in the form of molded sections (semi-cylindrical for pipes, slabs for vessels, flanges, valves, etc.). The main advantage of the molded sections is the ease of application and replacement when undertaking repairs for damaged lagging.

        The thermal conductivity of a material is the heat loss per unit area per unit insulation thickness per unit temperature difference. The unit of measurement is W-m²/m°C or W-m/°C. The thermal conductivity of materials increases with temperature. So thermal conductivity is always specified at the mean temperature (mean of hot and cold face temperatures) of the insulation material.

        The thermal conductivities of typical hot and cold insulation materials are given in Tables 1.1 and Table 1.2.

1.3. Selection of Thermal Insulating Systems

1.3.1. Optimum Effectiveness

The use of thermal insulation shall be arranged so that the optimum effectiveness is derived from all components of the complete system, bearing in mind always any economic limitations that may be imposed by the purchaser. Where optimum effectiveness cannot be obtained, as a result of economic or other limitations, it is the duty of the insulation experts to advise the relevant company to this effect, giving their reasons for their opinion. The required life of the insulation systems should be considered because this affects the annual cost and hence the economic thickness. If the plant has only a short life, an inexpensive insulation system may be considered; if the plant has a longer life, durability and other considerations may come into play.

Table 1.2

Thermal Conductivity of Cold Insulation

When the technical requirements of the application have been met, the total cost (as distinct from the initial cost) during the life of the insolation should be the prime consideration.

1.3.2. Extent of System

A thermal insulating system shall be understood to include the following:

• The required attachments to the surface to be insulated

• Means of securing the insulation system to those attachments, where appropriate, or to the surface directly

• The types and thicknesses of the insulating materials to be used

• Means of protecting the insulating material, other than the outer finish, e.g., vapor barrier (could also be extended to include initial protection of the surface to be insulated, e.g., from corrosive attack)

• Reinforcing materials

• Finishing materials.

Consideration shall be given individually to systems for pipework, to flat surfaces (e.g., air ducts, gas flues, walls of drying ovens, walls of large boilers, etc.), and to vessels, tanks, and large curved surfaces.

The components of the system shall be appropriate to the specific requirements of use. Generally, materials to be exposed to outdoor weather will differ from those used indoors, if only in the type of finish employed. Different types of system are likely to be required for the following ranges of application:

• Refrigeration (-100°C up to +5°C)

• Chilled and cold water supplies, industrial use

• Central heating, air conditioning, and domestic hot and cold water supplies (10°C up to 200°C)

• Process pipework and equipment (from ambient temperature up to 650°C)

• Dual temperature systems, e.g., refrigeration with occasional use at higher temperatures

• Heat transfer fluid systems.

1.3.3. Factors for Consideration

The main controlling factors that shall be considered at an early design stage are outlined in the following. Attention should be paid to details at the design stage to ensure the effectiveness of the complete system.

• Temperature

    Thermal insulation on a plant operating at temperatures below the dew point of the surrounding air has to be kept dry, both before and after application. This means that some form of vapor barrier is essential. For elevated temperatures the insulating material has to be adequately resistant to the highest temperature involved under eventual service conditions.

• Mechanical stability

    The system, including the insulating material, the method of fixing, and the finishing material, has to be capable of giving effective service for its design life. This is of special importance for certain plants in which access for repair work may be difficult.

• Resistance to degradation

    This requirement can have wide implications, from resistance to vermin and fungoid attack, to freedom from fire hazard. It will also include resistance to the required environmental conditions, e.g., adequate weather resistance for outdoor service as well as resistance to accidental spillage of oils or other chemicals. The insulating material itself should not tend to dissociate or disintegrate.

• Thermal effectiveness

    A low thermal conductivity figure for one test sample may not be a reliable guide to the thermal effectiveness of a complete insulation system during prolonged periods of service. There shall be adequate quality control at all stages of the manufacture of materials and at all stages of their application at the site.

• Type and dimensions of the plant to be insulated

    The size and configuration of the plant will have an important bearing on the suitability of a particular insulating material, as well as on the reinforcement, means of securing, and type of finishing material to be used. Particular care will be required with large flat areas, especially when elevated temperatures may cause extensive thermal movements.

• Compatibility of the components of the system

    Care shall be exercised to avoid the use of solvent-based adhesive or polymeric finishing compounds where these may attack the main insulating material, e.g., polystyrene. Also it is important to avoid corrosion problems, e.g., those caused by electrochemical action between dissimilar metals under possible humid conditions.

• Total weight of the system

    Although substantially thick insulating material may be desirable for energy saving, consideration