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    Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland
    Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland
    Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland
    Ebook1,200 pages23 hours

    Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland

    By Steve Finch, Alison Samuel and Gerry P. Lane

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    About this ebook

    Increased yields, markets, and profitability have led to changes in crop husbandry. Since its first publication in 1966, revised editions of Lockhart & Wiseman's Crop Husbandry Including Grassland have upheld and increased the book's good reputation. This ninth edition maintains its status as the standard textbook for many agricultural courses.

    Part one covers the principles of crop production with chapters concerning plants, climate, soil management, fertilizers, manures, weeds, and diseases threatening farm crops. Part two surveys crop husbandry techniques. Environmental impact has been addressed in greater detail in this edition. This section looks at issues such as sustainable crop management, precision farming, and organic crop husbandry. The way these general techniques apply to individual crops is explained in part three. This part considers a range of cereals, combinable break crops, root crops, industrial crops, and fresh produce crops. Part four looks at the use of grassland and forage crops, with chapters considering arable forage crops, the characteristics of grassland, and the corresponding methods for establishing and improving grassland. This part also includes information regarding equine grassland management and conservation of grass and forage crops.

    This ninth edition of Lockhart and Wiseman's Crop Husbandry Including Grassland is relevant for students throughout the United Kingdom and Europe. It is a useful reference book for agriculture National Diploma courses, Foundation Degrees, and BSc degrees, and is important for Masters level students entering agriculture from another discipline.

    • The previous edition has been widely expanded and remains the standard text for general agriculture, land management, and agri-business courses
    • Includes new chapters on cropping techniques, integrated crop management and quality assurance, seed production and selection, and the influence of climate
    • Discusses basic conditions for crop growth, how techniques are applied to particular crops, the influence of weather, and the use of grassland
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherElsevier Science
    Release dateJul 19, 2014
    ISBN9781782423928
    Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland
    Author

    Steve Finch

    Steve Finch, is Principal Lecturer in Crop Production at the Royal Agricultural University, UK

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      Book preview

      Lockhart and Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland - Steve Finch

      Lockhart & Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland

      Ninth Edition

      Edited by

      H.J.S. Finch

      A.M. Samuel

      G.P.F. Lane

      Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition: Number 277

      Table of Contents

      Cover image

      Title page

      Copyright

      Dedication

      Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

      Foreword

      Acknowledgements

      Introduction

      Cropping

      Crop yields

      Crop inputs

      Crop mechanisation and storage

      Support and legislation

      Environmental issues

      Research

      Education

      Sources of further information and advice

      Part I: Principles of crop production

      1. Plants

      Abstract:

      1.1 Introduction

      1.2 Plant physiology

      1.3 Plant groups

      1.4 Structure of the seed

      1.5 Plant structure

      1.6 Plant requirements

      1.7 Legumes and nitrogen fixation

      1.8 The control of plant growth and development

      1.9 Sources of further information and advice

      2. Climate and weather

      Abstract:

      2.1 Introduction

      2.2 Solar radiation and rainfall

      2.3 Air and soil temperature

      2.4 Other aspects of climate and weather

      2.5 Climate change

      2.6 Sources of further information and advice

      3. Soils and soil management

      Abstract:

      3.1 Introduction

      3.2 Soil formation

      3.3 The physical make-up of soil and its effect on plant growth

      3.4 Farm soils

      3.5 Soil fertility and productivity

      3.6 Sources of further information and advice

      4. Fertilisers and manures

      Abstract:

      4.1 Nutrients required by crops

      4.2 Trace elements

      4.3 Units of plant food

      4.4 Straight fertilisers

      4.5 Compound fertilisers

      4.6 Application of fertilisers

      4.7 Organic manures

      4.8 Residual values of fertilisers and manures

      4.9 Fertilisers and the environment

      4.10 Sources of further information and advice

      5. Weeds of farm crops

      Abstract:

      5.1 The impact of weeds

      5.2 Weed types and identification

      5.3 Control of weeds: general

      5.4 Herbicide resistance

      5.5 Spraying with herbicides: precautions

      5.6 Sources of further information and advice

      6. Diseases of farm crops

      Abstract:

      6.1 Introduction to plant disorders

      6.2 Symptoms

      6.3 Some important types of plant pathogens

      6.4 Other disorders

      6.5 The control of plant diseases

      6.6 Fungicide resistance

      6.7 Sources of further information and advice

      7. Pests of farm crops

      Abstract:

      7.1 Introduction

      7.2 Insect pests

      7.3 Other pests of crops

      7.4 Types of pest damage

      7.5 Methods of pest control

      7.6 Classification of pesticides

      7.7 Resistance

      7.8 Integrated pest management

      7.9 Sources of further information and advice

      Part II: Crop husbandry techniques

      8. Cropping techniques

      Abstract:

      8.1 Introduction

      8.2 Drainage

      8.3 Irrigation

      8.4 Warping

      8.5 Claying

      8.6 Tillage and cultivations

      8.7 Control of weeds by cultivation

      8.8 Crop management: key issues

      8.9 Break crops and crop rotations

      8.10 Sources of further information and advice

      9. Sustainable crop management

      Abstract:

      9.1 Introduction

      9.2 The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

      9.3 Sustainable agriculture

      9.4 The development of Integrated Crop Management (ICM), Integrated Farm Management (IFM) and sustainable crop production

      9.5 Food quality and safety in the food chain: farm assurance schemes

      9.6 Wildlife and conservation

      9.7 Key points

      9.8 Sources of further information and advice

      10. Precision farming

      Abstract:

      10.1 Introduction

      10.2 Data collection

      10.3 Data interpretation

      10.4 Auto-steering and controlled traffic farming

      10.5 The technology

      10.6 Sources of further information and advice

      11. Organic crop husbandry

      Abstract:

      11.1 Introduction

      11.2 Achieving organic status

      11.3 Rotations

      11.4 Soil and plant nutrition

      11.5 Weed control

      11.6 Disease control

      11.7 Pest control

      11.8 Husbandry examples

      11.9 Other systems

      11.10 Organic farming and the environment

      11.11 Sources of further information and advice

      12. Plant breeding and seed production

      Abstract:

      12.1 Introduction

      12.2 Plant breeding methods

      12.3 Target traits in breeding

      12.4 Choosing the right variety

      12.5 Seed quality

      12.6 Seed production

      12.7 Sources of further information and advice

      Part III: The management of individual crops

      13. Cereals

      Abstract:

      13.1 Introduction

      13.2 Cereal identification

      13.3 Grain quality in cereals

      13.4 Cereal growth, yield and inputs

      13.5 Harvesting

      13.6 Grain-drying methods

      13.7 Moist grain storage

      13.8 Cereal straw

      13.9 Wheat

      13.10 Durum wheat

      13.11 Barley

      13.12 Oats

      13.13 Rye

      13.14 Triticale

      13.15 Maize for grain

      13.16 Sources of further information and advice

      14. Combinable break crops

      Abstract:

      14.1 Introduction

      14.2 Oilseed rape

      14.3 Linseed and flax

      14.4 Sunflowers

      14.5 Soya beans

      14.6 Evening primrose

      14.7 Borage

      14.8 Combinable pulses

      14.9 Sources of further information and advice

      15. Root crops

      Abstract:

      15.1 Introduction

      15.2 Potatoes

      15.3 Sugar beet

      15.4 Future trends

      15.5 Sources of further information and advice

      16. Industrial crops

      Abstract:

      16.1 Introduction

      16.2 Specific crops: Miscanthus

      16.3 Short Rotation Coppice

      16.4 Wetland crops

      16.5 Crops for anaerobic digestion (AD)

      16.6 Woodland biomass

      16.7 Liquid biofuel crops

      16.8 Lubricant oil crops

      16.9 Fibre crops

      16.10 Pharmaceuticals, neutraceuticals, essential oils and cosmetics

      16.11 Carbohydrate crops

      16.12 Sources of further information and advice

      17. Fresh produce crops

      Abstract:

      17.1 Growing fresh produce crops

      17.2 Fresh peas

      17.3 Broad beans

      17.4 Green beans

      17.5 Lettuce

      17.6 Baby leaves and herbs

      17.7 Cabbages

      17.8 Broccoli

      17.9 Cauliflowers

      17.10 Brussels sprouts

      17.11 Bulb onions

      17.12 Leeks

      17.13 Carrots

      17.14 Edible swede and turnips

      17.15 Strawberries

      17.16 Sources of further information and advice

      Part IV: Grassland and forage crops

      18. Arable forage crops

      Abstract:

      18.1 Crops grown for their yield of roots

      18.2 Crops grown for grazing

      18.3 Crops grown for ensiling

      18.4 Sources of further information and advice

      19. Introduction to grass production/characteristics of grassland and the important species

      Abstract:

      19.1 Types of grassland

      19.2 The nutritive value of grassland herbage

      19.3 Identification of grasses

      19.4 Identification of legumes

      19.5 Grasses of economic importance

      19.6 Forage legumes of economic importance

      19.7 Herbs

      19.8 Grass and legume seed mixtures

      19.9 Sources of further information and advice

      20. Establishing and improving grassland

      Abstract:

      20.1 Establishing leys

      20.2 Grassland improvement and renovation

      20.3 Improving a sward by changing the management

      20.4 Improving a sward by renovation

      20.5 Fertilisers for grassland

      20.6 Irrigation of grassland

      20.7 Sources of further information and advice

      21. Grazing management

      Abstract:

      21.1 Introduction

      21.2 Stocking rate or density

      21.3 Principles of grazing management

      21.4 Grazing systems

      21.5 Strategies to minimise parasitism at grass

      21.6 The energy yield from grass and forage – the Utilised Metabolisable Energy (UME) calculation

      21.7 Sources of further information and advice

      22. Conservation of grass and forage crops

      Abstract:

      22.1 Introduction

      22.2 Crops for silage making

      22.3 The silage-making process

      22.4 Factors affecting silage fermentation

      22.5 Hay

      22.6 Green-crop drying

      22.7 Sources of further information and advice

      Appendices

      Appendix 1. Soil texture assessment in the field

      Appendix 2. Nomenclature of crops

      Appendix 3. Nomenclature of weeds

      Appendix 4. Nomenclature of diseases

      Appendix 5. Nomenclature of pests

      Appendix 6. Crop seeds

      Appendix 7. Agricultural land classification (ALC) in England and Wales

      Defra land classification maps and reports

      Index

      Copyright

      Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier

      80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge, CB22 3HJ, UK

      225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA

      Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, UK

      Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

      No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher.

      Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+ 44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+ 44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com. Alternatively, you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier website at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material.

      Notice

      No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made.

      British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

      A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

      Library of Congress Control Number: 2014937164

      ISBN 978-1-78242-371-3 (print)

      ISBN 978-1-78242-392-8 (online)

      For information on all Woodhead Publishing publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com/

      Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk

      Printed and bound in the United Kingdom

      Dedication

      This book is dedicated to the memory of Jim Lockhart

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      144 Consumer-led food product development Edited by H. MacFie

      145 Functional dairy products Volume 2 Edited by M. Saarela

      146 Modifying flavour in food Edited by A. J. Taylor and J. Hort

      147 Cheese problems solved Edited by P. L. H. McSweeney

      148 Handbook of organic food safety and quality Edited by J. Cooper, C. Leifert and U. Niggli

      149 Understanding and controlling the microstructure of complex foods Edited by D. J. McClements

      150 Novel enzyme technology for food applications Edited by R. Rastall

      151 Food preservation by pulsed electric fields: From research to application Edited by H. L. M. Lelieveld and S. W. H. de Haan

      152 Technology of functional cereal products Edited by B. R. Hamaker

      153 Case studies in food product development Edited by M. Earle and R. Earle

      154 Delivery and controlled release of bioactives in foods and nutraceuticals Edited by N. Garti

      155 Fruit and vegetable flavour: Recent advances and future prospects Edited by B. Brückner and S. G. Wyllie

      156 Food fortification and supplementation: Technological, safety and regulatory aspects Edited by P. Berry Ottaway

      157 Improving the health-promoting properties of fruit and vegetable products Edited by F. A. Tomás-Barberán and M. I. Gil

      158 Improving seafood products for the consumer Edited by T. Børresen

      159 In-pack processed foods: Improving quality Edited by P. Richardson

      160 Handbook of water and energy management in food processing Edited by J. Klemeš, R. Smith and J-K. Kim

      161 Environmentally compatible food packaging Edited by E. Chiellini

      162 Improving farmed fish quality and safety Edited by Ø. Lie

      163 Carbohydrate-active enzymes Edited by K-H. Park

      164 Chilled foods: A comprehensive guide Third edition Edited by M. Brown

      165 Food for the ageing population Edited by M. M. Raats, C. P. G. M. de Groot and W. A. Van Staveren

      166 Improving the sensory and nutritional quality of fresh meat Edited by J. P. Kerry and D. A. Ledward

      167 Shellfish safety and quality Edited by S. E. Shumway and G. E. Rodrick

      168 Functional and speciality beverage technology Edited by P. Paquin

      169 Functional foods: Principles and technology M. Guo

      170 Endocrine-disrupting chemicals in food Edited by I. Shaw

      171 Meals in science and practice: Interdisciplinary research and business applications Edited by H. L. Meiselman

      172 Food constituents and oral health: Current status and future prospects Edited by M. Wilson

      173 Handbook of hydrocolloids Second edition Edited by G. O. Phillips and P. A. Williams

      174 Food processing technology: Principles and practice Third edition P. J. Fellows

      175 Science and technology of enrobed and filled chocolate, confectionery and bakery products Edited by G. Talbot

      176 Foodborne pathogens: Hazards, risk analysis and control Second edition Edited by C. de W. Blackburn and P. J. McClure

      177 Designing functional foods: Measuring and controlling food structure breakdown and absorption Edited by D. J. McClements and E. A. Decker

      178 New technologies in aquaculture: Improving production efficiency, quality and environmental management Edited by G. Burnell and G. Allan

      179 More baking problems solved S. P. Cauvain and L. S. Young

      180 Soft drink and fruit juice problems solved P. Ashurst and R. Hargitt

      181 Biofilms in the food and beverage industries Edited by P. M. Fratamico, B. A. Annous and N. W. Gunther

      182 Dairy-derived ingredients: Food and neutraceutical uses Edited by M. Corredig

      183 Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food processing Volume 2 Edited by K. W. Waldron

      184 Innovations in food labelling Edited by J. Albert

      185 Delivering performance in food supply chains Edited by C. Mena and G. Stevens

      186 Chemical deterioration and physical instability of food and beverages Edited by L. H. Skibsted, J. Risbo and M. L. Andersen

      187 Managing wine quality Volume 1: Viticulture and wine quality Edited by A. G. Reynolds

      188 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 1: Milk production and processing Edited by M. Griffiths

      189 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 2: Improving quality in milk products Edited by M. Griffiths

      190 Cereal grains: Assessing and managing quality Edited by C. Wrigley and I. Batey

      191 Sensory analysis for food and beverage quality control: A practical guide Edited by D. Kilcast

      192 Managing wine quality Volume 2: Oenology and wine quality Edited by A. G. Reynolds

      193 Winemaking problems solved Edited by C. E. Butzke

      194 Environmental assessment and management in the food industry Edited by U. Sonesson, J. Berlin and F. Ziegler

      195 Consumer-driven innovation in food and personal care products Edited by S. R. Jaeger and H. MacFie

      196 Tracing pathogens in the food chain Edited by S. Brul, P. M. Fratamico and T. A. McMeekin

      197 Case studies in novel food processing technologies: Innovations in processing, packaging, and predictive modelling Edited by C. J. Doona, K. Kustin and F. E. Feeherry

      198 Freeze-drying of pharmaceutical and food products T-C. Hua, B-L. Liu and H. Zhang

      199 Oxidation in foods and beverages and antioxidant applications Volume 1: Understanding mechanisms of oxidation and antioxidant activity Edited by E. A. Decker, R. J. Elias and D. J. McClements

      200 Oxidation in foods and beverages and antioxidant applications Volume 2: Management in different industry sectors Edited by E. A. Decker, R. J. Elias and D. J. McClements

      201 Protective cultures, antimicrobial metabolites and bacteriophages for food and beverage biopreservation Edited by C. Lacroix

      202 Separation, extraction and concentration processes in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries Edited by S. S. H. Rizvi

      203 Determining mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food and feed Edited by S. De Saeger

      204 Developing children’s food products Edited by D. Kilcast and F. Angus

      205 Functional foods: Concept to product Second edition Edited by M. Saarela

      206 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 1: Fundamental issues Edited by E. M. Yahia

      207 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 2: Açai to citrus Edited by E. M. Yahia

      208 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 3: Cocona to mango Edited by E. M. Yahia

      209 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 4: Mangosteen to white sapote Edited by E. M. Yahia

      210 Food and beverage stability and shelf life Edited by D. Kilcast and P. Subramaniam

      211 Processed Meats: Improving safety, nutrition and quality Edited by J. P. Kerry and J. F. Kerry

      212 Food chain integrity: A holistic approach to food traceability, safety, quality and authenticity Edited by J. Hoorfar, K. Jordan, F. Butler and R. Prugger

      213 Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 1 Edited by Y. Nys, M. Bain and F. Van Immerseel

      214 Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 2 Edited by F. Van Immerseel, Y. Nys and M. Bain

      215 Animal feed contamination: Effects on livestock and food safety Edited by J. Fink-Gremmels

      216 Hygienic design of food factories Edited by J. Holah and H. L. M. Lelieveld

      217 Manley’s technology of biscuits, crackers and cookies Fourth edition Edited by D. Manley

      218 Nanotechnology in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries Edited by Q. Huang

      219 Rice quality: A guide to rice properties and analysis K. R. Bhattacharya

      220 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging Edited by J. P. Kerry

      221 Reducing saturated fats in foods Edited by G. Talbot

      222 Handbook of food proteins Edited by G. O. Phillips and P. A. Williams

      223 Lifetime nutritional influences on cognition, behaviour and psychiatric illness Edited by D. Benton

      224 Food machinery for the production of cereal foods, snack foods and confectionery L-M. Cheng

      225 Alcoholic beverages: Sensory evaluation and consumer research Edited by J. Piggott

      226 Extrusion problems solved: Food, pet food and feed M. N. Riaz and G. J. Rokey

      227 Handbook of herbs and spices Second edition Volume 1 Edited by K. V. Peter

      228 Handbook of herbs and spices Second edition Volume 2 Edited by K. V. Peter

      229 Breadmaking: Improving quality Second edition Edited by S. P. Cauvain

      230 Emerging food packaging technologies: Principles and practice Edited by K. L. Yam and D. S. Lee

      231 Infectious disease in aquaculture: Prevention and control Edited by B. Austin

      232 Diet, immunity and inflammation Edited by P. C. Calder and P. Yaqoob

      233 Natural food additives, ingredients and flavourings Edited by D. Baines and R. Seal

      234 Microbial decontamination in the food industry: Novel methods and applications Edited by A. Demirci and M. O. Ngadi

      235 Chemical contaminants and residues in foods Edited by D. Schrenk

      236 Robotics and automation in the food industry: Current and future technologies Edited by D. G. Caldwell

      237 Fibre-rich and wholegrain foods: Improving quality Edited by J. A. Delcour and K. Poutanen

      238 Computer vision technology in the food and beverage industries Edited by D-W. Sun

      239 Encapsulation technologies and delivery systems for food ingredients and nutraceuticals Edited by N. Garti and D. J. McClements

      240 Case studies in food safety and authenticity Edited by J. Hoorfar

      241 Heat treatment for insect control: Developments and applications D. Hammond

      242 Advances in aquaculture hatchery technology Edited by G. Allan and G. Burnell

      243 Open innovation in the food and beverage industry Edited by M. Garcia Martinez

      244 Trends in packaging of food, beverages and other fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) Edited by N. Farmer

      245 New analytical approaches for verifying the origin of food Edited by P. Brereton

      246 Microbial production of food ingredients, enzymes and nutraceuticals Edited by B. McNeil, D. Archer, I. Giavasis and L. Harvey

      247 Persistent organic pollutants and toxic metals in foods Edited by M. Rose and A. Fernandes

      248 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries E. Arendt and E. Zannini

      249 Viruses in food and water: Risks, surveillance and control Edited by N. Cook

      250 Improving the safety and quality of nuts Edited by L. J. Harris

      251 Metabolomics in food and nutrition Edited by B. C. Weimer and C. Slupsky

      252 Food enrichment with omega-3 fatty acids Edited by C. Jacobsen, N. S. Nielsen, A. F. Horn and A-D. M. Sørensen

      253 Instrumental assessment of food sensory quality: A practical guide Edited by D. Kilcast

      254 Food microstructures: Microscopy, measurement and modelling Edited by V. J. Morris and K. Groves

      255 Handbook of food powders: Processes and properties Edited by B. R. Bhandari, N. Bansal, M. Zhang and P. Schuck

      256 Functional ingredients from algae for foods and nutraceuticals Edited by H. Domínguez

      257 Satiation, satiety and the control of food intake: Theory and practice Edited by J. E. Blundell and F. Bellisle

      258 Hygiene in food processing: Principles and practice Second edition Edited by H. L. M. Lelieveld, J. Holah and D. Napper

      259 Advances in microbial food safety Volume 1 Edited by J. Sofos

      260 Global safety of fresh produce: A handbook of best practice, innovative commercial solutions and case studies Edited by J. Hoorfar

      261 Human milk biochemistry and infant formula manufacturing technology Edited by M. Guo

      262 High throughput screening for food safety assessment: Biosensor technologies, hyperspectral imaging and practical applications Edited by A. K. Bhunia, M. S. Kim and C. R. Taitt

      263 Foods, nutrients and food ingredients with authorised EU health claims: Volume 1 Edited by M. J. Sadler

      264 Handbook of food allergen detection and control Edited by S. Flanagan

      265 Advances in fermented foods and beverages: Improving quality, technologies and health benefits Edited by W. Holzapfel

      266 Metabolomics as a tool in nutrition research Edited by J.-L. Sebedio and L. Brennan

      267 Dietary supplements: Safety, efficacy and quality Edited by K. Berginc and S. Kreft

      268 Grapevine breeding programs for the wine industry: Traditional and molecular technologies Edited by A. G. Reynolds

      269 Handbook of natural antimicrobials for food safety and quality Edited by M. Taylor

      270 Managing and preventing obesity: Behavioural factors and dietary interventions Edited by T. P. Gill

      271 Electron beam pasteurization and complementary food processing technologies Edited by S. D. Pillai and S. Shayanfar

      272 Advances in food and beverage labelling: Information and regulations Edited by P. Berryman

      273 Flavour development, analysis and perception in food and beverages Edited by J. K. Parker, S. Elmore and L. Methven

      274 Rapid sensory profiling techniques and related methods: Applications in new product development and consumer research, Edited by J. Delarue, B. Lawlor and M. Rogeaux

      275 Advances in microbial food safety: Volume 2 Edited by J. Sofos

      276 Handbook of antioxidants in food preservation Edited by F. Shahidi

      277 Lockhart & Wiseman’s crop husbandry including grassland: Ninth edition H. J. S. Finch, A. M. Samuel and G. P. F. Lane

      278 Global legislation for food contact materials: Processing, storage and packaging Edited by J. S. Baughan

      279 Colour additives for food and beverages: Development, safety and applications Edited by M. Scotter

      Foreword

      First published in 1966, Lockhart & Wiseman’s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland has now established itself as the standard source of information relating to modern crop production technology and management for students and farmers. Not only is it one of the most popular reference sources for students in colleges and universities studying temperate agriculture, it is a text much liked by practitioners engaged in commercial crop production, as well as by others also employed in the crop-based industries serving farming. In my view, each new edition confirms and extends the reputation of this seminal book, and the Ninth Edition is no exception. It includes many updates and revisions, as it should, in response to the many changes in agricultural practice since its last publication in 2002. The content and coverage continues to expand, and rightly so. Living in a period of considerable and complex change, it is good to see this standard textbook keeping up with the times.

      I have had the privilege of knowing both original authors at the Royal Agricultural College (as was). Jim Lockhart (who sadly passed away in 2012) was a very enthusiastic potatoes and cereals man, with a love of practical farming, and this shone through his teaching to many hundreds of agriculture students at Cirencester during his long career. Tony Wiseman, now retired, was no less a significant influence on the careers of many future farmers and land agents during his own long teaching career. Tony was a particularly keen grassland and forage crop enthusiast, and this still comes through the book today as it did in his teaching at the College over many years. Crop Husbandry is testimony to their commitment to agricultural education, and their ‘baby’ has since been in the safe hands of my close colleagues in writing the most recent editions. Steve, Alison and Gerry clearly share the same enthusiasm for the subject as the original authors, and this shines through in the new Ninth Edition.

      As a ‘Crops’ man myself, I continue to check various important issues on occasion in Crop Husbandry and the Ninth Edition is welcome. Important basic information needed to ensure crops can continue to be successfully grown is as important now, if not more so with increasingly more mouths to feed, as it has ever been. The Ninth Edition of Crop Husbandry should certainly help to meet this need in our constant struggle to boost crop performance and future profitability, and in a much more sustainable manner.

      Paul Davies Professor

      Vice Principal, Royal Agricultural University, UK

      Acknowledgements

      The authors are grateful to the following for their contributions to this book:

      • Dr Keith Chaney, Principal Lecturer, Harper Adams University, UK (author of Chapter 9 Sustainable crop management).

      • Dr Jim Monaghan, Principal Lecturer, Harper Adams University, UK (author of Chapter 17 Fresh produce crops).

      • Dr Helen Moreton, Senior Lecturer in Animal Science, Royal Agricultural University, UK (co-author of Chapter 21 Grazing management and Chapter 22 Conservation of grass and forage crops).

      Introduction

      Jim Lockhart and Tony Wiseman published their first edition of Crop Husbandry in 1966. At the time there were many changes taking place in arable production and yields were increasing rapidly. Concerns in crop production were very different from those found today. Now, over 47 years later, we have produced the ninth edition. It is fitting with the passing away of Jim Lockhart to look at how crop production changed during his lifetime.

      Cropping

      Until the 1980s, barley was the most commonly grown cereal crop (Fig. 0.1). Since then, winter wheat has become the major cereal crop in the UK, while oats continue to be a minor crop. There are many reasons for the shift in popularity of the cereal crops but the main ones are increased yields, markets and most importantly profitability. In the first edition, spring barley was considered the highest yielding barley crop and some farmers were growing continuous spring barley; this is not the case now. With the increase in understanding of diseases such as BYDV in winter barley there were many years when winter crops were more popular than spring crops and in the 1980s many farmers on poorer soils were growing continuous winter barley. Subsequent problems with barley yellow mosaic virus as well as some poor harvests brought this trend to an end and now the popularity has swung back more in favour of spring barley. Rotation was also not considered to be so important with the introduction of more pesticide options and inorganic fertilisers. This has also changed again as we struggle with problems such as pesticide resistance and increases in fertiliser prices.

      Fig. 0.1 UK cereal areas 1966–2012 (1000 ha), Defra.

      Of the other arable crops, there have also been some changes (Fig. 0.2). Most significant is the increase in area now grown of oilseed rape. Once the UK joined the Common Market in 1973 (now European Union – EU) there was financial support available for crop production in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), either in the form of production support or income support. One of these supports was for oil production from oilseed rape. This made the crop more viable economically. There were also major developments in breeding making oilseed rape better for oil production and increasing the market for rape meal. Now oilseed rape is the most commonly grown arable break crop. This had certainly not been envisaged back in the 1960s. Other break crops such as field beans, peas and linseed have fluctuated in areas grown mainly depending on support payments and prices.

      Fig. 0.2 Changes in area grown of sugar beet, potatoes, oilseed rape, forage maize and field vegetables, in England, 1970–2010 (1000 ha), Defra.

      Other important changes in arable cropping affected sugar beet and potatoes. Sugar beet is regulated in the EU, though we could grow more. Over the years there have been major reductions in the number of factories and this has restricted areas where the crop is grown. The reduction in area grown of sugar beet helped increase the area of oilseed rape as growers looked for suitable alternative break crops. The area grown of potatoes used to be governed by a UK quota system but after joining the EU this quota system was scrapped. Potatoes have now become a very highly mechanised operation, with limited direct farm sales and more being sold on contract to packers for supermarkets and processors; this has led to fewer growers.

      The area of field vegetables has also declined despite new technologies, meaning more crops can be produced on a smaller area. The UK has continued to increase the percentage of imported vegetables as some countries are able to produce vegetables at different times of the year from the UK and sometimes more cheaply.

      The other major change in cropping has been in area grown of forage crops, including forage maize. Again in the 1960s virtually no maize was grown in the UK, though there was quite an area of other forage crops such as kale, mangolds, turnips and swedes. The development of new maize varieties that are able to cope with the UK climate, as well as the cost of importing livestock feeds, led to farmers trying to grow more of their own livestock requirements. Livestock systems in the 1960s relied more on grazed crops as fewer animals were housed during the winter months. With the increase in winter housing and silage rather than hay based systems, other forage crops have declined in importance. Grassland areas have also changed; permanent pasture has remained fairly static but there has been a large decline in area of temporary grass (under 5 years old). In the 1960s ley farming (rotating crops with short term leys) was important and, according to the first edition of this book, ‘mixed farming was found on most lowland farms’. Subsequently, many farms have become much more specialised with fewer mixed farms, especially in eastern England. In the future, with changes in EU support payments, it may be that farmers have to look again at having a broader rotation.

      One other area that has changed since the 1960s is the importance of industrial crops, so a new chapter on these crops has been added in this edition.

      Crop yields

      Many crop yields have significantly increased since the 1960s. Wheat and barley yielded similarly in 1966 at around 4 tonnes/hectare (t/ha). Yields increased steadily right up to the late 1990s with most improvement in the yield of wheat. Since the late 1990s yields have plateaued (Fig. 0.3) despite improvements in varieties and crop husbandry and a small increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide.

      Fig. 0.3 UK cereal yields from 1966–2012 (t/ha), Defra.

      In root crops (Fig. 0.4) there has been a steady increase in potato yields, but it is sugar beet that is the real success story with very good yield improvements, especially over the last 30 years. These yield increases can be attributed to both improvements in crop husbandry as well as in plant breeding.

      Fig. 0.4 UK sugar beet and potato yields 1980–2011, Defra.

      Crop inputs

      Crop inputs have increased dramatically since 1966 when, for example, in wheat N rates were only 75 kg/ha with 60 kg/ha P2O5 and K2O, a seed dressing was commonly used plus one or two herbicides and occasionally a plant growth regulator was applied. Some inputs were even supported by government grants, such as the liming subsidy.

      Fertiliser applications

      Application rates of fertiliser N was one of the main changing inputs over the years (Fig. 0.5). N rates increased right up to the 1990s at the same time as crop yields were increasing. Since then nitrogen rates have stayed fairly constant in arable crops. In 1966 ammonium nitrate was only just being developed and used; previously the main nitrogen source other than organic manures was ammonium sulphate. It was not until the 1970s that prilled ammonium nitrate was readily available, which led to increased ease of application. In grassland, N inputs peaked in the 1990s but have since declined.

      Fig. 0.5 Total amount of N, phosphorus (P2O5) and potassium (K2O) applied to all crops and grassland in the UK, Defra.

      One nutrient that was barely mentioned in the first edition was sulphur. At the time there were enough atmospheric depositions of S so that none had to be applied to any crop (though the main bag N fertiliser then did contain some S). With the reduction of air pollution many parts of the UK now suffer from S deficiencies in a range of crops and applications of fertiliser sulphur have increased.

      The first fertiliser manual (RB209) with recommendations for agricultural and horticultural crops was published by MAFF in 1973. This manual has been edited several times and is now the industry standard for fertiliser recommendations. Optimum recommended rates have changed according to trial results as well as fertiliser price, use of organic manures and legislation.

      Crop protection chemicals

      The use of agrochemicals is an area of crop husbandry that has changed tremendously over the years (Fig. 0.6). In the first edition, other than seed dressings there were virtually no fungicides available, herbicides were limited as were insecticides. On average in 1974 there were only two treatments applied per crop compared with over 10 now. In some crops, such as sugar beet, hand hoeing within the crop row was commonly undertaken; now a very detailed herbicide programme has been developed. Many new chemicals, especially fungicides, were developed between the 1970s and 2000. The new agrochemicals that were developed were safer environmentally and were also applied in much lower quantities (g rather than kg of active ingredients). So in practice, though more treatments are applied, lower amounts of active ingredient are applied per ha (Fig. 0.7). There has been an increase in the amount of legislation surrounding pesticide use to ensure safety to operators as well as to the environment and food safety. Knowledge of disease epidemiology and pest life cycles has also improved and decision support programmes have been developed.

      Fig. 0.6 Pesticide-treated area of crops as a percentage of cropped land (adapted from pesticide usage survey results, Defra). Note: Data were for England and Wales in 1974, for Great Britain in 1988 and 1998, and for the UK in 2010.

      Fig. 0.7 Changes in area treated with pesticides (1000 ha) and total amount of pesticides applied (t) (Pesticide Usage Survey). Note: Data were for England and Wales in 1974, for Great Britain in 1988 and 1998, and for the UK in 2010.

      In the first edition there was nothing on pesticide resistance. There had been a few cases of resistance to the organochlorine insecticides but it was not considered an important issue. Now, with 40 plus years of routine use of pesticides, resistance is a common problem in many groups of agrochemicals. It is partly because of resistance issues and the limited production of new chemicals that many farmers have had to take a more integrated approach to weed, pest and disease control, so a specific chapter was added in the 8th edition.

      As the development of new chemicals has become very expensive there has been a very limited number of new chemicals coming onto the market and many companies are now looking at biological control methods. In the first edition, biological control methods were considered to have little application in this country; how things have changed. It is now standard practice in glasshouse production systems to use biological control methods and it is even beginning to be looked at for use in the field.

      With the increase in complexity of crop protection, a training and regulatory scheme for agrochemicals (BASIS) was established in 1978; this meant that the growing number of crop advisers could be trained in weed, pest and disease identification, lifecycles and control as well as in safe storage and applications of pesticides. (A similar fertiliser scheme was developed in 1993 (FACTS).)

      Varieties and plant breeding

      Variety selection has always been very important in crop production. Quite a percentage of the yield increases up to the 1990s was attributed to improvements in crop varieties. In the first edition, as now, we recommend readers to consult the recommended variety lists. What is different now is that the majority of plant breeding companies are independent. In the 1960s and 1970s the UK had its own state funded plant breeding stations including the plant breeding institute (PBI) which was very important in producing some of the most commonly grown wheat, barley and potato varieties of the time. In 1987 it was privatised. Since then private plant breeding companies have continued to develop with the use of biotechnology, production of hybrid varieties and increase in knowledge of crop gene sequencing. GM crops are still not allowed to be grown in this country but it will be interesting to see what happens in the near future.

      Crop husbandry

      During the 1970s and 1980s there was an increased amount of research work into crop physiology, especially for cereals and potatoes. This led to a better understanding of the interaction between seed rates, sowing dates and varieties and the effect of other inputs, especially nitrogen on crop growth and yield. In the first edition, all the different crops’ husbandry was lumped together; subsequent editions have split many of the crops into different chapters as the amount of crop husbandry knowledge increased.

      Sugar beet is one of the crops whose husbandry has changed most since 1966. Monogerm pelleted (insecticide treated) seed, as predicted, is now the norm and has enabled the crop to be precision drilled, removing the need to hand single. With improvements in varieties it is now possible to drill the crop earlier, which has also helped to maximise yields. Crop protection programmes are now much more sophisticated, especially for weed control, with development of the repeated low dose programme. An understanding of soil structure and compaction led to the development of controlled wheeling systems and measures to reduce incidence of soil erosion.

      Crop mechanisation and storage

      There have been some very major changes in how crops are harvested and stored compared with 1966. At the time of writing the first edition, 30% of the sugar beet crop was still harvested by hand. Potato harvesters were only just being developed and the majority of potato crops were still hand lifted. Potatoes were often stored in clamps outside, whereas now many farmers have temperature controlled, insulated stores. After joining the common market there were some good capital grant schemes available (e.g. FHDS) which encouraged participating farmers to expand, especially in relation to building silage pits, grain and potato stores.

      There have been major changes in the size and capacity of machinery. For example, in the 1960s fertiliser spreaders only had a spread of 9 m compared with up to 36 m now. Tramlines were initially not used in cereal crops as there were very few passes across most crops; as inputs increased and farmers required more precision they started drilling tramlines. Now some farmers are using remote sensing technology and variable rate applications of fertiliser in order to target and optimise fertiliser applications. These precision farming techniques are discussed in the new precision farming chapter added in this edition.

      Seed bed cultivations have varied across the years. In the 1980s many farmers were direct drilling after burning the crop stubble. Once burning was banned many people went back to plough-based systems, but with increased fuel prices farmers are looking again at minimum tillage systems.

      In horticulture there have been major developments in crop mechanisation. Many crops are now grown from plants raised in modules; planters can be tractor-less using precision farming techniques; and the use of crop covers has enabled growers to extend the crop season. Several harvesters and field rigs have been developed for harvesting and packing in the fields. Crops are often cooled as soon as they are harvested and are then refrigerated during storage and transportation in order to maintain quality before arriving on the supermarket shelves (chill chain). With the reduction in approved pesticides, many growers have to take a much more integrated approach as far as crop protection is concerned.

      Support and legislation

      During the 1960s and 1970s farmers were encouraged to increase production, either by UK support or subsequently the CAP. The CAP was very successful in increasing crop production across the EU. Unfortunately this led to mountains of some commodities such as wheat which had to be stored in large intervention stores. Subsequently, set-aside was introduced in 1992 to take some arable land out of production. The need for set-aside was removed in 2008 mainly due to a reduction of the grain mountain and also a fall in world supplies. Over the years there have been a number of EU directives that have affected the way we farm, including the nitrates directive and water framework directive. Some of these directives have been introduced to limit agricultural pollution and soil erosion and to ensure the sustainability of farming systems. In this current edition we have included a chapter on sustainable crop management.

      As well as the various EU directives impacting on arable production, once we joined the EU it also led to the adoption of metric units. The first edition of crop husbandry was all written using imperial units; now of course everything is metricated, though in practice many farmers still use both systems!

      Environmental issues

      Environmental issues were not discussed or considered a problem in the 1960s. It was only during the 1970s and 1980s that many people became concerned about loss of habitats and biodiversity, soil erosion and pollution. Birds are a good indicator of what is happening to farmland biodiversity as they have a wide variety of habitat and food requirements and are fairly easy to monitor. Since 1970 farmland bird populations have fallen so that in 2011 numbers were only 60% of the base numbers in 1970. Some specialist bird species have been more seriously affected. The decline in numbers was greatest during the 1970s and 1980s. The reasons are many, including loss of mixed farms, more autumn cropping and production of silage not hay.

      In 1985 the first funded Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) was started in England and this was the beginning of a number of funded farm conservation schemes. Since then there have been various CAP-supported agri-environmental schemes introduced. In England about two-thirds of the farmed land is covered by one of the agri-environment schemes. The current CAP single payment scheme also has a number of environmental management requirements – cross-compliance.

      In 1966 virtually no one talked about organic farming – it was only after some of these environmental issues were raised, plus financial support, that farmers started converting to this farming system. Jim Lockhart was very much against this type of farming as he had grown up in a time when farmers were trying to reduce the amount of manual work carried out on farms! It was quite a struggle to persuade him to let us put a chapter in this book. We think he would have been quite surprised about the current area of organically grown crops in the UK.

      Research

      In the 1960s and 1970s most agricultural research and advice was provided free by the government (Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food – MAFF and the Agricultural Development and Advisory Service – ADAS). The UK was a net importer of food and the government’s target was to promote crop production. This all changed after the 1980s when there were ‘Wheat and other food mountains’, and the government started reducing the amount of support for agricultural research. Organisations such as the weed research organisation were closed. Later ADAS was privatised and the government pushed for the agricultural industry itself to support research through crop levies. Currently, the Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (AHDB) is the statutory levy board in the UK, and farmers, growers and others in the supply chain are charged a small levy to fund much needed, independent, research and development work.

      In 1979 Jim Lockhart was involved in getting one of the new national cereal events to be held in the Cotswolds – Barley ‘79’. These cereal events are now one of the most important annual arable shows in the country. After Barley ‘79’ a group of progressive Cotswold farmers, with support from lecturers and advisers including Jim, started their own private cereal trials organisation – the Cotswold Cereal Centre (CCC). We are sure he would never have imagined how this private organisation would grow! With the loss of government funding for near market research, trials work had to be more farmer funded – exactly what the CCC was doing. Over the years it has grown to have centres in different parts of the country. It joined with Morley (trials and crop advisory group) to form The Arable Group (TAG) and subsequently combined with NIAB to form the national independent, agronomy research and information organisation NIAB TAG.

      Education

      There has been a decline in universities offering agricultural courses over the years; both Wye (Imperial) and Seale-Hayne (Plymouth University) colleges have been the most recent to close. More of the national institutions (such as the Royal Agricultural University and Harper Adams University) are providing the training, as well as county colleges. There are now a wider range of courses and levels of courses available, but student numbers have fluctuated widely over the years; numbers have been very dependent on the profitability of farming. With farming becoming more specialised and advanced mechanically and technologically, together with all the legislation that farmers need to follow it is more important than ever that future farmers have a good agricultural education – so there is still a requirement for this book!

      Sources of further information and advice

      Further reading

      1. Anon. Wild Bird Populations in the UK 1970–2011, National Statistics Defra 2012.

      2. Knight S, Knightley S, Bingham I, Hoad S, Lang B, et al. HGCA Project Report 502, Desk study to evaluate contributory causes of the current ‘yield plateau’ in wheat and oilseed rape HGCA 2012.

      3. Sly JMA. Pesticide Usage Survey Report 8: Review of usage of pesticides in agriculture and horticulture in England and Wales 1965–1974 MAFF 1977.

      4. Garthwaite DG, Thomas MR. Pesticide Usage Survey Report 159, Arable farm crops in Great Britain MAFF 1999.

      5. Garthwaite DG, Barker I, Parrish G, Smith L, Chippendale C, Pietravalle S. Pesticide Usage Survey Report 235, Arable crops in the UK 2010 Defra 2011.

      6. Wilkins RJ. Grassland in the Twentieth Century IGER innovations 2000.

      Websites

      1. www.defra.gov.uk.

      2. www.bto.org.

      3. www.hgca.com.

      4. www.statistics.gov.uk.

      5. www.fera.defra.gov.uk.

      6. www.ahdb.org.uk.

      7. www.niab.com.

      Part I

      Principles of crop production

      Outline

      1 Plants

      2 Climate and weather

      3 Soils and soil management

      4 Fertilisers and manures

      5 Weeds of farm crops

      6 Diseases of farm crops

      7 Pests of farm crops

      1

      Plants

      Abstract:

      This chapter describes the biology of plants, the most important organisms on the planet. It covers plant physiology and important biochemical processes such as photosynthesis and respiration. It describes the grouping of plants depending on their life cycle. It discusses the structures which are of most importance to crop production including seeds, roots and leaves. The chapter stresses the importance of the leguminous plants and their role in improving soil fertility. Finally it describes the requirements of plants for growth and development, and how these are controlled by plant hormones.

      Key words

      physiology; photosynthesis; water; nutrients; plant structure; plant hormones

      1.1 Introduction

      Plants are living organisms consisting of many specialised individual cells. They differ from animals in many ways and a very important difference is that they can build up valuable organic substances from simple materials such as carbon dioxide and water. The most important part of this building process, called photosynthesis, is the production of carbohydrates such as sugars, starch and cellulose, along with oxygen. They have rigid cell walls enclosing a semi-permeable cell membrane which allows the passage of water through it (osmosis). They have specialised organs such as roots, stems and leaves, are mostly immobile and are primary producers of food in most land-based ecosystems.

      1.2 Plant physiology

      1.2.1 Photosynthesis

      In photosynthesis a blue/green substance called chlorophyll A and a yellow/green substance called chlorophyll B use light energy (normally sunlight but sometimes artificial) to change carbon dioxide and water into sugars (carbohydrates) and oxygen in the green parts of the plant. The amount of photosynthesis per day which takes place is limited by the duration and intensity of sunlight, and the ability of the green parts of a plant to capture it. The amount of carbon dioxide available can also be a limiting factor. Shortage of water, low temperatures and leaf disease or damage can reduce photosynthesis, as can shading by other plants, e.g. by weeds in a crop. The cells that contain chlorophyll also have orange/yellow pigments such as xanthophyll and carotene, and brown pigments called phaeophytins which absorb different wavelengths of light than the chlorophylls. Crop plants can only build up chlorophyll A and B in the light, and so any leaves that develop in the dark are yellow and cannot efficiently produce carbohydrates. The yellowing of leaves (chlorosis) can also be caused by disease attack, nutrient deficiency or natural senescence (dying off).

      Oxygen is released back into the atmosphere during photosynthesis and the process may be set out as follows:

      (a) The light reaction (light dependent)

      This takes place in the thylakoid membranes inside the ‘chloroplast’, an organelle found inside the cells of green tissue. Light provides energy for the chlorophyll molecule that releases electrons. These split water into oxygen and hydrogen.

      The chemical reaction of this stage is:

      [1.1]

      The hydrogen then moves into the next stage:

      (b) The dark reaction (light independent)

      This takes place in the watery stroma of the chloroplast. Here the hydrogen is combined with carbon dioxide by the Calvin Cycle to give carbohydrate and water:

      [1.2]

      The carbohydrates are simple sugars, which can be moved through the vascular system of the plant in solution to wherever they are needed. This process not only provides the basis for all food production but it also supplies the oxygen which animals and plants need for respiration. The simple carbohydrates, such as glucose, may be built up to form starch for storage purposes or as cellulose for building cell walls. Fats and oils (lipids) are formed from carbohydrates by a process of esterification which produces mostly triglycerides. These are usually found in seeds and are a form of concentrated energy. Protein material, which is an essential part of all living cells, is made from carbohydrates and nitrogen compounds and also frequently contains sulphur. These form amino acids which are held together in proteins by peptide bonds.

      Most plants consist of roots, stems, leaves and reproductive parts and need a medium in which to grow. These media could be soil, compost, water where plants are grown hydroponically

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