Everand Logo

Welcome to Everand!

  • Discover millions of ebooks, audiobooks, and so much more with a free trial

    Only $11.99/month after trial. Cancel anytime.

    Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology
    Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology
    Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology
    Ebook613 pages5 hours

    Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology

    By Bijoy Bhattacharyya

    4/5

    ()

    Read preview

    About this ebook

    Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology is the first book solely dedicated to electrochemical micromachining (EMM). It begins with fundamentals, techniques, processes, and conditions, continuing with in-depth discussions of mechanisms of material removal, including an empirical model on the material removal rate for EMM (supported by experimental validation). The book moves next to construction-related features of EMM setup suitable for industrial micromachining applications, varying types of EMM, and the latest developments in the improvement of EMM setup. Further, it covers power supply, roll of electrolyte, and other major factors influencing EMM processes, and reports research findings concerning the improvement of machining accuracy and efficiency. Finally, the book devotes a chapter to the design and development of micro-tools, one of the most vital components in EMM.
    • Covers the generation of micro features used for advanced engineering of materials for fabrication of MEMS, microsystems and other micro-engineering applications
    • Explores the trend of decreasing size of fabricated devices, reflected in coverage of generation of high-precision nano-features on metal and semiconductors utilizing SPM, STM, and AFM, and nanotechnology aspects of EMM
    • Describes nanofabrication utilizing anodic dissolutions for mass manufacturing by overcoming obstacles utilizing electrochemical microsystem technology (EMST) and electrochemical nanotechnology (ENT)
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherElsevier Science
    Release dateApr 10, 2015
    ISBN9780323352888
    Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology
    Author

    Bijoy Bhattacharyya

    Professor, Production Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Field of Specialization: Non-Traditional Machining Processes, Micro Machining. Advanced Manufacturing Technology (AMT), Production Management. Principal Investigator since 1995 for seven multi-year research projects e.g. on Electrochemical Machining (ECM), Electrochemical Discharge Machining (ECDM), and Electrochemical Micromachining (EMM) Professor, Production Engineering Department, since 2000 Head of the Department, Production Engineering Department, from 2001 to 2003 Coordinator of Quality Improvement Program (QIP), Jadavpur University, since 2002 Coordinator of Center of Advanced Study (CAS) Phase II-IV Programs consisting thrust areas: Micromachining and Nanotechnology, Micromanufacturing, sponsored by UGC, since 2003 Achieved several Certificates of Merit and Certificates of Achievement Institution Award & Gold Medal by The Institution of Engineers (India) for a research paper Keynote speaker, chair person, presenter and organizer/coordinator of several international conferences. Visited several countries such as England, Dublin, Taiwan, Hongkong, Thailand etc. for research and academic purposes. Board member and Fellow of several academic bodies in several institutions Guest editor of International journals and editor of conference proceedings Supervised several Ph.D thesis and filed several patents in his credit. Authored and co-authored around 353+ articles Author of 83 articles with 1352 total citations by 959 documents as listed in Scopus H-Index of 24 per SCOPUS

    Related to Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology

    Titles in the series (97)

    View More
    View More

    Related ebooks

    Chemistry For You

    View More
    View More

    Related podcast episodes

    Related articles

    • Article

      Business applications For Quantum computing

      May 1, 2022

      COMPUTERS DO ARITHMETIC. Underlying every amazing application of computers today is math, calculated using binary digits or ‘bits.’ The original computers of the early 1950s could perform about 465 multiplications per second — much faster than the ‘h

      11 min read

    • Article

      ‘MRI’ Diagnoses What’s Wrong With Batteries

      May 3, 2018

      A new MRI-based technique quickly diagnoses what ails certain types of batteries—from determining how much charge remains to detecting internal defects—without opening them up. “The use of alternative energy and electrically powered vehicles will fur

      2 min read

    • Article

      Stretchy Liquid Metal Material Could Improve Wearable Tech

      Oct 23, 2023

      A super flexible, self-healing, and highly conductive material suitable for stretchy electronic circuitry could significantly improve the performance of wearable tech, soft robotics, smart devices, and more. Imagine a stretchable and durable sensor p

      2 min read

    • Article

      Invest In The Best Of Asia’s Innovators

      Jan 21, 2022

      Asia is home to a wealth of innovative businesses generating valuable intellectual property. This often translates to defensible economic moats and higher profitability. At Cerno Capital, we look for companies in structurally growing industries provi

      2 min read

    • Article

      Here’s A Feasible Way For Our Devices To Send Data With Light

      Apr 25, 2018

      Researchers have developed a method to fabricate silicon chips that can communicate with light and are no more expensive than current chip technology. The new microchip technology capable of optically transferring data could solve a severe bottleneck

      3 min read

    • Article

      The Hidden Yet Indispensable Value Of Monozukuri

      Aug 6, 2021

      In English, the Japanese word ‘monozukuri’ can be translated as ‘making things’. And it’s fair to say Japan has excelled at making things since the postwar boom that turned the country into one of the world’s industrial powerhouses. But monozukuri me

      6 min read

    • Article

      behind The Scenes At Bmpro

      Dec 6, 2023

      behind The Scenes At Bmpro
      9 min read

    • Article

      Tech At Its Best

      Jul 25, 2020

      Tech At Its Best
      2 min read

    • Article

      Inner Vision

      Oct 7, 2022

      Inner Vision
      8 min read

    • Article

      Fab Jobs

      May 26, 2023

      Fab Jobs
      8 min read

    • Article

      Industrial Design Inarchitecture

      Aug 8, 2018

      Industrial Design Inarchitecture
      1 min read

    • Article

      The Magic Of Marcus

      Dec 16, 2019

      The Magic Of Marcus
      6 min read

    • Article

      Moore’s Law Is About to Get Weird: Never mind tablet computers. Wait till you see bubbles and slime mold.

      Feb 12, 2015

      I’ve never seen the computer you’re reading this story on, but I can tell you a lot about it. It runs on electricity. It uses binary logic to carry out programmed instructions. It shuttles information using materials known as semiconductors. Its brai

      7 min read

    • Article

      ‘Black Box’ Chip Makes Hacking Impossible

      May 13, 2018

      Researchers have created a chip that deploys ionic memristor technology to solve the digital problem of security with an analog memory hardware solution. While we embrace the way the Internet of Things already is making our lives more streamlined and

      2 min read

    • Article

      Power Up With Smart Cement

      Nov 26, 2018

      Power Up With Smart Cement
      2 min read

    • Article

      Prints Charming

      Sep 2, 2022

      Prints Charming
      11 min read

    • Article

      Helping Hand

      May 29, 2022

      Helping Hand
      2 min read

    • Article

      Japanese Paper Art Could Let Electronics Stretch Out

      Apr 4, 2018

      Kirigami, a variation of origami that involves cutting folded pieces of paper, has inspired researchers’ efforts to build malleable electronic circuits. Their innovation—creating tiny sheets of strong yet bendable electronic materials made of select

      1 min read

    • Article

      Bright Sparks

      Jan 6, 2020

      Bright Sparks
      1 min read

    • Article

      Small Modular Reactors (SMRs): The Key To Net Zero

      Mar 28, 2024

      SMRs are advanced nuclear reactors with a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) – megawatts electric – per unit, around a third of the generating capacity of traditional reactors. Because SMRs are so much smaller, simpler, cheaper and quicker to assemble

      1 min read

    Related categories

    Reviews for Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology

    4/5

    1 rating0 reviews

    What did you think?

    Tap to rate

    Review must be at least 10 words

      Book preview

      Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology - Bijoy Bhattacharyya

      Electrochemical Micromachining for Nanofabrication, MEMS and Nanotechnology

      Bijoy Bhattacharyya

      Production Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

      Table of Contents

      Cover image

      Title page

      Copyright

      Dedication

      About the Author

      Foreword

      Preface

      Acknowledgment

      Symbols

      Chapter 1. Introduction

      1.1. Micromachining and Nanofabrication

      1.2. MEMS and Microsystems

      1.3. Conditions for Micromachining and Nanofabrication

      1.4. Types of Micromachining Processes

      1.5. Electrochemical Micromachining

      1.6. Electrochemical Technology for Microsystems and Nanofabrication

      Chapter 2. Electrochemical Machining: Macro to Micro

      Introduction

      2.1. Background of ECM

      2.2. Fundamentals of Anodic Dissolution

      2.3. Important Influencing Factors of ECM for Micromachining

      2.4. EMM: Present Status

      Chapter 3. Principle of Material Removal in Electrochemical Micromachining

      3.1. Mechanism of Material Removal

      3.2. Equivalent Electrical Circuit for EMM

      3.3. MRR Model

      Chapter 4. Types of EMM

      Introduction

      4.1. Through-Mask EMM

      4.2. Maskless EMM

      4.3. Three-Dimensional EMM

      Chapter 5. Electrochemical Micromachining Setup

      5.1. Details of EMM Setup

      5.2. Current Status of Developments in EMM Setup

      5.3. IEG Control Strategy

      Chapter 6. Design and Developments of Microtools

      Introduction

      6.1. Types of EMM Tools

      6.2. Microtool Design for EMM

      6.3. Methods of Microtool Fabrication

      6.4. EMM for Microtool Fabrication

      6.5. Different Features of Microtools Fabricated by EMM

      Chapter 7. Influencing Factors of EMM

      Introduction

      7.1. EMM Power Supply

      7.2. Electrolyte for EMM

      7.3. Influence of IEG

      7.4. Influence of Temperature, Concentration, and Electrolyte Flow

      7.5. Influence of Tool Feed Rate

      Chapter 8. Improvement of Machining Accuracy

      Introduction

      8.1. Tool Insulation

      8.2. Electrolyte Circulation

      8.3. Shape of the Microtool

      8.4. Tool Movement Strategy

      8.5. Stray Current and Microsparks Phenomena in EMM

      8.6. Hybrid EMM

      8.7. Selection of Combination of Machining Parameters

      Chapter 9. Advantages, Limitations, and Applications of EMM

      Introduction

      9.1. Advantages

      9.2. Applications

      9.3. Limitations and Remedies

      Chapter 10. Microdevices Fabrication for Microelectromechanical Systems and Other Microengineering Applications

      Introduction

      10.1. Microelectromechanical Systems

      10.2. Semiconductor Micromachining by EMM

      10.3. Microengineering Applications

      Chapter 11. Electrochemical Microsystem Technology

      Introduction

      11.1. Features of EMST

      11.2. Scaling Down and Scaling Up

      11.3. Electrochemical Microcell and Microelectrode

      11.4. Electrochemical Reactions in EMST

      11.5. Applications of EMST in Microsystem Technology

      Chapter 12. Recent Advancements in EMM for Micro and Nanofabrication

      Introduction

      12.1. Wire EMM

      12.2. Solid-State EMM

      12.3. Surface Structuring

      12.4. Electrochemical Wet Stamping

      12.5. Electrochemical Patterning by EnFACE Technology

      12.6. Nanofabrication by EMM

      Chapter 13. Nanofeatures on Metals and Semiconductors for Nanotechnology Applications

      Introduction

      13.1. Electrochemical Nanotechnology

      13.2. Nanofeatures on Metals and Semiconductors

      Index

      Copyright

      William Andrew is an imprint of Elsevier

      The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK

      225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA

      Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

      No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

      This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

      Notices

      Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

      Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

      To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

      ISBN: 978-0-323-32737-4

      British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

      A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

      For Information on all William Andrew publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com/

      Dedication

      Dedicated

      to

      my parents,

      my teacher, late Prof. Swapan Kumar Sorkhel

      and

      my beloved wife (Rita), and daughter (Jyotiprana)

      About the Author

      Dr Bijoy Bhattacharyya is professor and Ex-Head of the Production Engineering Department of Jadavpur University, Kolkata. Prof. Bhattacharyya is the Coordinator of Center of Advanced Study (CAS) with thrust areas: nontraditional machining, micromachining and nanotechnology, and micromanufacturing under the University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi. He is also the Chief Coordinator of the Quality Improvement Program (QIP) of Jadavpur University, Kolkata. He completed his B.Tech. in mechanical engineering from Regional Engineering College, Calicut, Kerala in 1983 and ME in production engineering from Jadavpur University, Kolkata in 1985. In 1991, he completed his PhD on electrochemical machining (ECM) system from Jadavpur University. The primary research interest of Prof. Bhattacharyya had always been in the fundamental aspects of manufacturing sciences and he had been working in the area of advanced manufacturing over the last two decades. His areas of interests include nontraditional machining processes, micromachining, advanced manufacturing technology, production management, etc. Prof. Bhattacharyya contributed substantially to the development of new processes, machines and tools, especially in the emerging area of micromachining and nanofabrication. During his PhD, he developed microprocessor-based electrochemical machining (ECM) setup considering cross flow of electrolyte and performed extensive experimentations to investigate the influence of various predominant machining parameters on major machining criteria such as metal removal rate and accuracy in terms of overcut, surface finish, and surface integrity. Also, he developed different mathematical models to establish the relationship between major machining criteria and predominant machining parameters based on different developed mathematical models and carried out in detail analysis of these models to study the influence of various parameters.

      His post doctoral research work included, Development of Microprocessor based Electrochemical Machining (ECM) setup and analytical models useful for the optimality search to achieve titanium machining by controlled ECM; development of electrochemical discharge machining setup to enhance machining rate and accuracy during micromachining of advanced nonconducting engineering ceramics; experimental analysis on CNC Nd-YAG laser micromachining as effective solutions to the engineers working in the machining of advanced engineering ceramics; development of pulsed Nd:YAG laser microturning setup for machining of advanced engineering ceramics which will be useful for advanced manufacturing industry; development of electrochemical micromachining (EMM) setup which has a great potential to solve the challenging problems faced by the precession manufacturing industries; development of a novel strategy for sludge removal from narrow inter-electrode gap with the help of microtool vibration for enhancing the electrochemical micromachining performance; minimization of geometrical inaccuracy due to wire lag phenomena in CNC WEDM which has tremendous potential in industrial application for machining precision contours; development of optimization strategy for WEDM of gamma titanium aluminide during single pass and trim cutting operation to provide effective guidelines to the manufacturing engineers; development of unique polarity changing strategy of micro-EDM, which is effective for machining of microhole in Ti-6Al-4V with precision; development of EMM setup for microtool manufacturing for in situ applications during various micromachining operations; development of strategies for generation of microchannel and microfeatures by applying anodic dissolution and development of EMM setup for 3-D fine pattern generation for applications in aerodynamic bearings.

      He was awarded with Career Award at 1995 from the University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi for outstanding young teachers from engineering fields during 1994–1995; Certificate of Merit at 2003 from The Institution of Engineers (India), Kolkata for three research papers; Certificate of Achievement at 2004 and Certificate of Achievement at 2008 from Indian Society for Technical Education, New Delhi for supervising the best M.Tech. thesis in mechanical engineering; Institution Award and Gold Medal at 2009 from The Institution of Engineers (India), Kolkata for his research paper and Certificate of Achievement at 2009 from Indian Society for Technical Education, New Delhi for guiding the best M.Tech. thesis in mechanical engineering. He successfully completed several projects funded by various organizations like UGC, DST, AICTE, BARC and completed various other consultancy projects. He organized different national and international conferences and various workshops. He authored a chapter in Introduction to Micro Machining, 2010, ISBN-978-81-7319-915-8 and edited several proceedings. He published about 103 research papers in reputed national and international journals like International Journal of Material Processing Technology, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE), American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), International Journal of Precision Engineering, etc., with an h-index of 24 and about 256 research papers in proceedings of national and international conferences which had been a standing testimony to his valuable contributions to micromachining. He reviewed several research papers for international and national journals and attended several national and international conferences, where he acted as Chairman of various technical sessions. He guided several PhD and ME thesis and filed several patents in his credit. He is also the member and fellow of academic bodies and other national and international professional bodies and advisory committees.

      Foreword

      Even before 1834 when the British scientist Michael Faraday defined the laws of electrolysis that bear his name, applications for electrochemical phenomena had started to emerge. The invention of the voltaic pile around the year 1800 was the basis on which Brugnatelli, an Italian, performed electrodeposition in 1805. Following these findings, Faraday's researches spurred a major part of the industrial revolution of the nineteenth century in Europe. The process of electroforming was discovered by Jacobi of the Russian Academy of Science in 1838. In 1840 patents were filed in the UK to protect electroplating processes that were used in industry. In Germany the first electroplating production plant was established during 1876. The reverse process to electro-deposition of anodic dissolution was also being put to use with development of etching, polishing, and smoothing of metal parts.

      This technological progress continued into the twentieth century. The year 1929 saw Gusseff filing the first patent on what we now term electrochemical machining (ECM), a method of shaping very hard alloy metals. Yet it was almost another 30  years before the widespread use of this new technology began notably in North America, Europe, and Asia. The aircraft engine manufacturers were the prime users faced with the challenge of the need to use alloy metals that were difficult to machine by traditional methods; other industries—automotive, and die and mold manufacturers—were also quick to see its use. The process fell into some disfavor in the latter part of the twentieth century: owing to the need for very high currents, the difficulties in cathode tool design, choice of electrolyte for new materials, and control of its hydrodynamic flow, and other disadvantages. Perhaps a saving feature for ECM toward the end of the twentieth century was the achievement of its use in micromachining and particularly that for domestic electric razors; the need for ECM in medical industry with a growing need for human joint replacement and the micromachining for microelectronics also have been contributory factors, that have simulated a fresh look at the process, taking us in the twenty-first century.

      It is appropriate that with India's place as a major player in manufacturing, this should be the country from which this new book comes. ECM has been extensively researched over the years in India and a series of books and research papers has made its researchers well respected over all five continents. With this book Professor Bhattacharya has sought to place ECM firmly on the micro and nanomachining stage. He covers the basics, drawing attention to the need for a much better understanding of the fundamental electrochemistry. He describes the various types of micro- and nano-ECM that are available now and could be available in near future. He discusses micro tools, power supplies, and other significant facets of these fresh aspects of ECM. The book takes into the role of ECM for Micro electromechanical systems (MEMS), Electrochemical Microsystem (EMST) and Electrochemical Nanotechnology (ENT), he deals with accuracy and the relevance of Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), and other measurement techniques used in nanotechnology, and aspects of micro fabrication. The book serves a most useful purpose putting ECM back at the forefront as an electrochemically based process that provides solutions to twenty-first century technology challenges, more than 200  years after the first applications were first found.

      Prof. J.A. McGeough

      Honorary Professorial Fellow & Regius Chair of Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, UK

      Preface

      Micromachining and nanotechnology play an increasing decisive role in the miniaturization of components ranging from electronics, biomedical to chemical microreactors and sensors. Introduction to micromachining and nanofabrication is presented as the key technology in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Electrochemical micromachining (EMM) appears to be a very promising micromachining technology due to its advantages that include higher machining rate, better precision and control, rapid machining time, reliable, flexible, environmentally acceptable, and it also permits machining of chemically resistive materials which are widely used in biomedical, electronic, and MEMS applications. There is urgent need to emphasize the technological applications of electrochemical reactions, rather than fundamental knowledge of electrochemistry. However, in microscopic domain electrochemical dissolution process needs special developments in the field of microgalvanics, microengineering, electrochemical material science, microelectronics, electroanalysis, and biology, etc. These wide applications form interdisciplinary bridges between science and technology. Machining is one of the primary domains of manufacturing engineers; however, successful utilization of anodic dissolution for micromachining, nanofabrication as well as in nanotechnology, emphasizes the need of knowledge, based on various interdisciplinary areas which make the development of EMM more critical and complicated.

      I started my research work in electrochemical machining (ECM) during my postgraduate thesis work which focused on the development of microprocessor controlled ECM setup. Thereafter, during PhD research, in depth investigation into the influence of various parameters for achieving controlled ECM had been carried out. I was always fascinated by knowing the special capabilities of ECM and initiated postdoctoral research to utilize anodic dissolution for micromachining purposes. During my last 30  years of service in the field of academic and research, I was involved in studying and carrying out research in the numerous fields of applications of ECM in microengineering. I was excited about the anodic dissolution/deposition which can be effectively applied in micro as well as nanofabrications and finally, this motivated me to take up this endeavor of developing this book project with Elsevier to combine all the facets of EMM together not only highlighting micromachining but also MEMS, nanofabrication as well as nanotechnology applications.

      Few books are available in this area mainly focusing on ECM which hardly cope up with today's needs of micromachining and nanofabrication. This may be the first attempt to stay abreast of all the developments of EMM which is rapidly expanding its scope of utility in various fields starting from micromachining, nanofabrication to nanotechnology. Chapter 1 presents an introductory overview of the concerned topics of discussion, such as micromachining, nanofabrication, EMM, MEMS, etc. Possibility of utilizing electrochemical technology for microsystems and nanofabrication has also been reported. The role of STM and AFM to fabricate nanofeatures as well as nanostructure have been introduced which will open up new horizon for nanotechnology applications. Chapter 2 provides a detailed view about the progress of ECM from macro to microdomain. Several electrochemical and other influencing factors including present status of EMM is reported which appears to be superior considering machining speed, accuracy, and economy.

      Chapter 3 deals with in depth discussion on basic mechanism of material removal for EMM. Moreover, equivalent electrical circuit, material removal rate (MRR) model, formulation of MRR based on equivalent electrical circuit model as well as comparison of basic model and electrical circuit model of MRR for EMM have been established and validated with the support of experimental results. Chapter 4 gives detail classification of EMM technique. New techniques of EMM such as layer-by-layer, sinking and milling method have been reported for the first time. Experimental results of these new techniques of EMM have also been presented to evaluate their performance.

      Development of EMM setup is still at the research level. Chapter 5 describes developments of EMM setup. Important features of this chapter cover current status of EMM setup developed by various researchers working in this area around the globe. Various strategies of inter-electrode gap (IEG) control, developed and successfully implemented by various researchers have also been elaborated.

      Microtool is an integral part of any micromachining and nanofabrication operations. In recent years, there is significant breakthrough in fabrication of microtools. Chapter 6 presents different types of EMM tools which have been identified and discussed for the first time. Design and developments of microtools have also been reported. Different features of microtool such as, shape, size, and surface quality fabricated by EMM have also been highlighted in this chapter.

      Chapter 7 elaborates various important influencing factors of EMM. Influence of IEG, temperature, concentration, electrolyte flow, and tool feed rate has also been described with the help of large number of practical results. Chapter 8 concentrates on various strategies to improve machining accuracy of EMM. Hybrid EMM techniques which are the newer developments to improve the effectiveness of EMM have also been included. Selections of optimal combination of EMM parameters validated by test results have also been incorporated to enhance the machining efficiency and accuracy. Chapter 9 includes numerous practical and industrial applications of EMM. Various factors which restrict the wider usability of this process have been discussed. This Chapter also focuses on how to minimize these adverse factors by applying various remedial measures.

      Microdevices fabrication for MEMS and other microengineering applications have been reported in Chapter 10. It presents a clear view on fabrication of microfeature of aluminum, copper, stainless steel, nickel, and titanium, etc., for MEMS. Some of the interesting topics included in this chapter are fabrication of high aspect ratio features for MEMS as well as micromachining of semiconductor by EMM. Here, EMM has successfully demonstrated its capability as an alternative technique for machining of microdevices with three-dimensional features of higher resolutions on metals as well as semiconductors.

      In the area of electrochemical micro and nanofabrication, electrochemical microsystem technology (EMST) is an emerging and fast developing field with many challenging opportunities. Chapter 11 focuses on different features of EMST. Applications of EMST in microsystem technology and other miscellaneous applications of EMST have been reported. EMST has the possibility to establish a link between the conventional macroscopic electrochemistry and the electrochemical nanoscience.

      Chapter 12 focuses on recent advancements in EMM for micro and nanofabrication. It contains various emerging variants of EMM. Various interesting factors of surface structuring of aluminum, stainless steel, and titanium, etc., by EMM have been presented considering not only simple flat surfaces but also complex curved surfaces. EMM can also be successfully utilized for fabrication of three-dimensional nanostructures which has also been reported.

      Chapter 13 reports on how EMM can be utilized to generate nanofeatures on metals and semiconductors for nanotechnology applications. It focuses on electrochemical nanotechnology (ENT). Nanofeatures on metals and semiconductors utilizing different techniques, e.g., electrochemical printing, electrochemical etching, etc., have been illustrated. Electrochemical nanofabrication including surface nanostructuring utilizing some of the most sophisticated instruments, such as SPM, STM, and SECM has been highlighted to achieve resolutions at atomic level. Electrochemical nanofabrication by AFM tip has also been explored to demonstrate that EMM has set up its foot prints in the nanotechnology applications.

      This book presents information from hundreds of sources, such as numerous articles, technical papers, and reports which have been published over the recent years as well as our own research outcomes in these areas of EMM. To assure that the reader is exposed to wider coverage of EMM, the book includes EMST and ENT for updating further applicability of anodic dissolution or deposition which promises significant advances not only in micromachining but also for nanofabrication as well as nanotechnology applications. It is impossible to include details of all the technologies; however, an inclusive list of references is given at the end of each chapter to provide further linkages. This book offers a comprehensive treatment of EMM techniques, processes, and future directions representing a valuable reference to engineers and R&D researchers involved in micromachining, micromanufacturing, or nanofabrication as well as academics and postgraduate level students with mechanical engineering, manufacturing engineering, machining processes, or nanotechnology as specialization.

      At the end, critical suggestions from the readers are sought forward to improve the quality of the book in future.

      Acknowledgment

      This book has become a reality due to the constant inspirations and encouragement received from the senior professors such as Prof. S. K. Basu of COE, Pune, Prof. V. Radhakrishnan, former professor of IIT Madras, Prof. B. Gurumoorthy, IISc Bangalore, Prof. V. K. Jain, IIT Kanpur, Prof. P. K. Mishra, former professor of IIT Kharagpur, Prof. P. Radhakrishnan, PSG Tech., Coimbatore, Prof. A. N. Bose, former Vice Chancellor of Jadavpur University (JU), Kolkata, and also from professors and scientists who have lent their support like Dr V. K. Suri, Dr R. Balasubramaniam as well as Mr K. Bandhopadhyay of BARC, Mumbai, Dr G. S. Lodha of RRCAT, Indore, Prof. S. Gowri of Anna University, Chennai, Prof. B. B. Ahuja of COE, Pune, Mr A. K. Chakraborti, former Director of RCI, DRDO, Hyderabad, Prof. S. Kumar, IITBHU, Prof. P. K. Jain, IIT Roorkee and Prof. U. S. Dixit, IIT Guwahati, etc.

      Considerable amount of our research work presented in this book was accomplished by collaborative team works by colleagues, such as Dr B. N. Doloi, Dr S. Chakraborty, Dr S. Mitra, Dr S. Sarkar, Dr D. Banerjee, Dr A. S. Kuar, and Dr B. R. Sarkar of Production Engineering Department, Prof. Amit Konar of Electronics and Telecommunication Department, JU as well as researchers, such as Dr A. Manna, Dr D. Dhupal, Dr B. B. Pradhan, Dr J. Munda, Dr M. Malapati, Dr S. Dhobe, Dr Golam Kibria, Dr Josephine Peter, and Mr A. Sarkar, etc.

      The book could not be completed without the active participation of research scholars and others who put their efforts at the best for carrying out research in this field as well as preparing the manuscript, figures, and other details. In this respect, Mr Sandip S. Anasane, Mr V. U. Rathod, Mr Subhrajit Debnath, Mr Bikash Ghoshal, Mr Subrata Mahata, Mr Sandip Kunar, Mr Hanimur Rahaman, and Mr Goutam Roy of CAS Lab and NTM Lab of the Production Engineering Department, JU are to be mentioned.

      Financial support from the University Grants Commission (UGC), All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), Department of Science and Technology (DST), and Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) as well as some industries for carrying out research in this area have proved to be useful for utilizing research outcomes to enrich this book.

      The team members of Elsevier like Mr Simon Holt, Dr Frank Hellwing, Mr Jefrey M. Freeland, Ms Priya Kumaraguruparan have put their constant effort in transforming this book into its final shape.

      Symbols

      m  =  Mass of a substance altered at an electrode

      Q  =  Total electric charge passed

      F  =  Faraday constant

      M  =  Molar mass of a substance

      z  =  Valency

      I  =  Current

      t  =  Time

      n  =  Number of moles

      ne  =  Number of electrons

      A  =  Area; Atomic weight (Chapter 1); Aspect ratio (Chapter 13)

      i′  =  Current density

      i  =  Partial current; number of machining parameters (Chapter 8)

      E  =  Electrode potential

      Eeq  =  Equilibrium electrode potential

      Ei  =  Electrode potential at current i

      E0  =  Electrode potential at zero current

      ΔE  =  Electrode polarization

      E⁰′  =  Formal potential which is the adjusted form of standard potential

      v  =  Reaction rate

      vrxn  =  Net rate of the electrode reaction

      H  =  Heat generated

      R  =  Electrical resistance

      V  =  Voltage

      C  =  Concentration

      δ0  =  Nernst diffusion layer thickness

      vmt  =  Rate of mass transfer

      m0  =  Mass transfer coefficient of species O

         =  Bulk concentration of species O

      D0  =  Diffusion coefficient at x  =  0

      CO  =  Concentration of species O

      CR  =  Concentration of species R

       =  Bulk concentration of species R

      mR  =  Mass transfer coefficient of species R

      T  =  Temperature in Kelvin

      R′  =  Universal gas constant

      Rct  =  Charge transfer resistance

      η  =  Over potential

      ηac  =  Activation overpotential

      ji  =  Partial current density

      j  =  Total current density

       =  Actual observed mass removal

      η′  =  Power conversion efficiency

      Uoc  =  Open-circuit potential

      Jsc  =  Short-circuit current density

      FF  =  Fill factor

      E⁰  =  Irradiance

      τ  =  Charging time constant

       =  Resistance of double layer

      ω  =  Radial frequency

      Cd  =  Double-layer capacitance

      RW  =  Warburg Impedance

      σ  =  Warburg coefficient

      Rct  =  Charge transfer resistance

      i0  =  Exchange current density

      Tb  =  Boiling temperature

      T0  =  Temperature at the inlet

      U0  =  Velocity at the inlet

      ea  =  Electrochemical equivalent of anode

      ce  =  Specific heat of electrolyte

      h0  =  Equilibrium gap width at gap inlet

      ρa  =  Anode metal density

      ρ0  =  Density at gap inlet

      f′  =  Feed rate of the tool

      ρs  =  Specific resistance or resistivity of electrolyte

      h  =  Inter-electrode gap

      Qv  =  Volume of material removed

      K  =  Electrochemical constant for a particular material

      ηc  =  Efficiency of dissolution or current efficiency

      Qact  =  Actual weight loss or actual material removed

      Qth  =  Theoretical weight loss or theoretical material removed

      J  =  Anodic limiting current density

      D  =  Effective diffusion coefficient

      Csat  =  Surface concentration

      Jmt  =  Current density due to migration and diffusion

      D′  =  Diffusivity

       =  Potential gradient

       =  Concentration gradient

      q  =  Charge stored in the capacitor

      C′, C (Chapter 3)  =  Capacitance

      Ri  =  Inter-electrode gap resistance

      Re  =  Electrolyte resistance

      ic  =  Charging current

      Rshort  =  Resistance across small flow path between the front end of the tool and workpiece surface i.e., IEG

      Rlong  =  Resistance across long flow path between longitudinal surface of the tool and workpiece along the side of tool

      RP  =  Polarization resistance

      η′a  =  Over potential at anode

      η′c  =  Over potential at cathode

      jmt  =  Current density due to mass transfer

      jet  =  Current density due to electron transfer

      Ceq  =  Equivalent capacitance

      V0  =  On-time voltage

      α  =  Charge transfer coefficient

      M′  =  Molecular mass

       =  Volume of material removed per pulse

      ton  =  Pulse on time

      t∗  =  Time required for charging of double layer

      V∗  =  Flat shape waveform voltage

      f  =  Pulse frequency in Hz

      m′  =  Mass of material dissolved

      Cdl  =  Specific double layer capacitance

      ϵ  =  Relative permittivity of solution

      ϵ0  =  Permittivity of vacuum in farad/meter

      x2  =  Stern layer thickness in meter

      DO  =  Diffusion coefficient of the oxidant

      DR  =  Diffusion coefficient of the reductant

       =  Bulk concentration of oxidant

       =  Bulk concentration of reductant

      Req  =  Equivalent resistance

      Requ  =  Total equivalent circuit resistance

      Tabs  =  Absolute temperature

      h′  =  Thickness of metal substrate

      θ  =  Taper angle of the micro nozzle

      r  =  Ratio of undercut

      b  =  Thickness of metal film

      GT  =  Machining gap at top surface

      GB  =  Machining gap at bottom surface

      Yu  =  Response of the electrochemical micromachining (EMM) process

      u  =  Number of experiments

      x  =  Coded value (Chapter 8)

      k  =  Total number of factors

      β  =  Second-order regression coefficient

      Df  =  Composite desirability function

      W  =  Atomic weight (Chapter 9)

      Chapter 1

      Introduction

      Abstract

      Micromachining and nanotechnology play an increasing decisive role in the miniaturization of components ranging from biomedical applications to chemical microreactors and sensors. Introduction to micromachining and nanofabrication is presented as the key technology in microelectromechanical systems. Present status of micromachining and nanofabrication has also been described. Different advance techniques used for micromachining are also discussed for providing basic backgrounds to the readers. Fundamental features of electrochemical micromachining is presented. Possibility of utilizing electrochemical technology for microsystems and nanofabrication has also been reported. Some of the techniques utilized for nanofabrication are also represented. The role of scanning tunneling microscope and atomic force microscope in fabrication of nanofeatures as well as nanostructures has been introduced, which will open up a new horizon for nanotechnology applications.

      Keywords

      ECM; Electrochemical micromachining (EMM); Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS); Micromachining; Microsystems; Miniaturization; Nanofabrication; Nanotechnology

      Miniaturization of metallic structures has become a prime issue for modern manufacturing industries. The emerging and developing fields of technologies necessitate the implementation of these microparts to meet the rising demands in various sophisticated areas like automotive, aerospace, electronics, medical devices, and optics. This promising and highly anticipated domain of sophistication is attracting present researchers to suggest suitable and proper techniques in fabricating micro and nanofeatures to keep pace with the growing market trends and research needs. Recent changes in societies' demand have forced us to introduce more and more microparts into various types of industrial products. For example, with regard to the fuel injection nozzle for automobiles, several regulations arising from environmental problems have forced manufacturers to

      Enjoying the preview?
      Page 1 of 1