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    Human Physiology, Biochemistry and Basic Medicine
    Human Physiology, Biochemistry and Basic Medicine
    Human Physiology, Biochemistry and Basic Medicine
    Ebook644 pages8 hours

    Human Physiology, Biochemistry and Basic Medicine

    By Laurence A. Cole and Peter R. Kramer

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    About this ebook

    Human Physiology, Biochemistry and Basic Medicine is a unique perspective that draws together human biology, physiology, biochemistry, nutrition, and cell biology in one comprehensive volume.

    In this way, it is uniquely qualified to address the needs of the emerging field of humanology, a holistic approach to understanding the biology of humans and how they are distinguished from other animals.

    Coverage starts with human anatomy and physiology and the details of the workings of all parts of the male and female body. Next, coverage of human biochemistry and how sugars, fats, and amino acids are made and digested is discussed, as is human basic medicine, covering the science of diseases and human evolution and pseudo-evolution.

    The book concludes with coverage of basic human nutrition, diseases, and treatments, and contains broad coverage that will give the reader an understanding of the entire human picture.

    • Covers the physiology, anatomy, nutrition, biochemistry and cell biology of humans, showing how they are distinguished from other animals
    • Includes medical literature and internet references, example test questions, and a list of pertinent words at the end of each chapter
    • Provides unique perspective into all aspects of what makes up and controls humans
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAcademic Press
    Release dateOct 13, 2015
    ISBN9780128037171
    Human Physiology, Biochemistry and Basic Medicine
    Author

    Laurence A. Cole

    Dr. Cole has served on the journal editorial board from 1994-2001 as the Editor of "Trophoblast Disease Update". He has written more than 100 articles on hCG structure, physiology and immunoassay and on clinical applications of hCG or hCG-related molecules. He has a 1.17 FWCI in the Medicine category of SciVal where he has published throughout the various disciplines and maintains an average of 12.6 citations per article from 2009-2014. He has experience with international, single, and institutional collaboration. Awards and recognition for Dr. Cole include the Institute for Anticancer Research, Biannual Prize for best research; American Association for Clinical Chemistry, Most Outstanding Research Contributor to Clinical Chemistry Prize; Gynecology Oncology, Outstanding Speaker Award; and International Society for Study of Trophoblastic Disease, Gold Medal for most outstanding research.

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      Human Physiology, Biochemistry and Basic Medicine - Laurence A. Cole

      Units

      Introduction

      Chapter 1.1

      The Cell

      Abstract

      The cell is the base unit of all animals, plants (eukaryotic and prokaryotic), and other living beings. Cells are often thought of as the smallest unit of a living organism. A cell is made up of many even smaller parts, each with its own function. Human cells vary in size, but all are quite small. Even the largest cell, a fertilized egg, is too small to be seen with the naked eye. Inside each cell is a nucleus containing the signaling chromosomes; a mitochondrion or biochemical power supply where ATP is made; the rough endoplasmic reticulum where proteins are translated and produced; the golgi apparatus that processes proteins; the lysosome that degrades molecules; and multiple other apparatuses or organelles.

      Keywords

      Nucleus

      Cytoplasm

      Mitochondrion

      Rough endoplasmic reticulum

      Golgi apparatus

      Lysosome

      The cell is the unit of all animal and plant, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, life. There is single cell life like the amoeba, oligocell life like some plankton, and multicell life like humans. Humans actually contain 3.0 × 10¹³ cells or 30 trillion cells. If you imagine that an average speck of dust weighs just 0.75 μg, then the average 70 Kg man comprises the weight of 93 billion particles of dust. Considering both values, the average cell in the human body weighs just a tiny fraction of the mass of a speck of dust, 1/323 of a speck of dust. The cell is the basic human makeup or unit, a tiny fraction of a speck of dust.

      This miniscule body, a fraction of the size of a speck of dust, is an entire village full of organelles or shops and business facilities. There is the mitochondrion, which is like the village power station, the nucleus, where the village mayor controls the village council or chromosomes and orders what is to be made and when, the rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes, which are like the local village factory, hard at work manufacturing the village’s need for proteins, and the Golgi apparatus, another village factory, hard at work refining the synthesized proteins. Then there is the lysosomes or local village dump degrading the molecules not needed by the cells. All buildings in the village or fraction of a speck of dust work happily and eagerly together.

      Figure 1.1.1 shows a representative human cell. While there are thousands of types or classes of cells in humans, each is different in shape, makeup, and function. A very general cell is shown in Figure 1.1.1. The number of each organelle varies in each cell type, and some cell types contain specialized functional organelles, which are not shown. Each cell is centered by a nucleus and within each cell is a nucleolus. Each cell has a smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, centrioles, and microtubules. Shown are secretory vesicles emerging from the Golgi apparatus as a representative cell (Figure 1.1.1).

      Figure 1.1.1 Representative animal cell and its organelles.

      The Plasma Membrane

      The plasma membrane is the envelope that encloses the entire cell. The envelope is made up of molecules called phospholipids. These are fatty acids with a charged or polar group on the head, and two long noncharged fatty tails comprising carbon and hydrogen atoms. Many different lengths of fatty acid tails, saturated and unsaturated carbon, and hydrogen atoms are found in phospholipids in different cell plasma membranes. One possible phospholipid with two stearic acid-derived fatty tails is shown in Figure 1.1.2.

      Figure 1.1.2 The structure of phospholipids.

      The phospholipids come together to form a bilayer, with the charged phospho groups on the extreme inside and outside of the membrane and the hydrophobic or noncharged fatty tails in the middle of the bilayer membrane. An example of a possible membrane is shown in Figure 1.1.3. The membrane is spanned by receptor proteins that bind a hormone or autocrine on the outside of the cell, and then transmit a protein signal to the inside of the cell. The bilayer is also crossed by channel protein, another type of protein that lets specific molecules, such as ions like Na+ enter, into the cell (Figure 1.1.3). The charged lipid bilayer blocks proteins, except proteins built into the plasma membrane, and most other molecules from crossing into the cell, except lipids or fats that merge with the plasma membrane lipid bilayers and cross the bilayer. Cells can export proteins across the lipid bilayer in secretory vesicles. Vesicles merge with the membrane after transporting proteins out of the membrane boundaries (see Figure 1.1.1).

      Figure 1.1.3 The lipid bilayer structure of plasma membranes.

      Nucleus and Nucleolus

      The nucleolus is the most prominent structure within the nucleus. It is the site of ribosomal RNA transcription and processing and ribosome assembly, or the creation of ribosomal protein synthesis centers. Actively growing human cells contain 5-10 million ribosomes that must be copied each time the cell divides into two. The nucleolar organizer regions of chromosomes, which contain the genes for ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA), serve as the substance for nucleolar structure. Ribosomal assembly in the nucleolus begins with the transcription of pre-rRNA. During transcription, ribosomal and nonribosomal proteins attach to the RNA. There is modification and cleavage of pre-rRNA and incorporation of more ribosomal proteins and 5S rRNA into maturing preribosomal complexes.

      As shown in Figure 1.1.4, the nucleus is a ball filled with chromatin, a DNA-protein complex, with the nucleolus, and multiple loose chromosomes. Each human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes or in 46 total. The nucleus is the site where DNA is replicated, and DNA is transcribed to make messenger RNA (mRNA) signals to start the process of translation or protein synthesis which occurs in ribosomes in the cell cytoplasm (all the cell body except the nucleus).

      Figure 1.1.4 The nucleus and nucleolus.

      The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of the genes on chromosomes and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression through mRNA signals. The nucleus is the control center of the cell. Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to large molecules, nuclear pores are required that regulate nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope. The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel through which larger molecules must be actively transported by carrier proteins while allowing free movement of small molecules and ions into the nucleus. Movement of large molecules like proteins and mRNA through pores is needed for gene expression and the maintenance of

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