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L'Utopie
L'Utopie
L'Utopie
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L'Utopie

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"Utopia" (le titre complet en latin est "De optimo rei publicae statu, deque nova insula Utopia, ou par extense, Libellus vere aureus, nec minus salutaris quam festivus de optimo rei publicae statu, deque nova insula Utopia") est un ouvrage de Thomas More paru en 1516. Il s'agit d'un livre fondateur de la pensée utopiste, le mot "utopie" étant lui-même dérivé de son titre. L'ouvrage a connu un succès particulier en France au XVIIe siècle et au XVIIIe siècle.


Le titre est construit d’après une racine grecque signifiant « lieu qui n'est nulle part », "οὐ τοπος (ou topos)" en grec.


Bien que Thomas More ne fût pas économiste, mais juriste, historien, théologien et homme politique, Utopia, qui n'était pas un traité d'économie, mais plutôt une satire de la société de son temps, fut repris au XIXe siècle, sans doute par un effet de biais, pour construire des théories économiques.
LanguageFrançais
PublisherPaperless
Release dateNov 28, 2014
ISBN9786050339086
L'Utopie
Author

Thomas More

Thomas More (1478–1535) was a Renaissance humanist thinker and statesman. Now famous for his masterpiece Utopia, he was executed under Henry VIII for refusing to recognize him as the leader of the Church of England, becoming a Catholic saint after his death.

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Rating: 3.5273497614791993 out of 5 stars
3.5/5

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  • Rating: 3 out of 5 stars
    3/5
    Utopia describes a different Commonwealth lifestyle. Would this lead to happiness? It's tough to say. Read it and see what you think.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    I loved the dialogue in book 1; Raphael is really quite woke. While the structure of Utopia itself was interesting, I would have rather liked a story rather than a textbook explanation. Nonetheless, it was enjoyable.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    Utopia offers an interesting critical look at live in the 16th century on the one hand as well as proposing an idea for an ideal civilization. Whether Utopia was meant to be a satire or represented More's personal views remains unclear, however, the discourse on Utopia contains several jokes and offers light reading.
  • Rating: 3 out of 5 stars
    3/5
    Reading this is a good exercise in humility, to realize how many subjects we discuss today have been discussed (in the same details) before. I find it interesting that people don't know just how serious More was about most of this. Is he sincere and exposing how he really feels even though he can't be more explicit or act on much of it? Or it is satirical? The subjects are presented with such respect that it isn't obvious either way.
  • Rating: 3 out of 5 stars
    3/5
    Yet another of the books for which I could provide a synopsis but have never read cover to cover (until now). There is much to Sir Thomas More's communist (note my use of a lowercase "c") essay that surprised me. One can see the little twists to insure against More being burned at the stake (the Utopians were ready to receive Christ as they had more or less self-discovered Christ's communal teachings - but it didn't prevent him having his head cut off for refusing to succumb to its antithesis) along with it being presented in the form of a dialogue in Book I (as per Plato, Machiavelli, et al.). A few things made me think it might be more socialist than communist, if one accepts that communism attempts to abolish the state in order to achieve equality, whereas socialism aspires to the same aim but through governmental or formal institutional arrangements. The founder of Utopia, "King" Utopus, suggested the limitations of More's imagination, and had me thinking of modern Bhutan. But the notes on the translation point out that Ralph Robinson, the translator, had added his own interpretations of the original Latin that added kings and princes where none was intended. The introduction by Richard Manus explains the reasons for keeping the original translation and for that I was pleased. The focus on religion and the idea of bondsman doing all the unpalatable work for the commonwealth brings to the fore many of the problems of communism in it twentieth century practice. Aside from the obvious problems where the dictatorship of the proletariat has never ended in its practical forms, communism has never really obtained that level of freedom, particularly in terms of occupations or individuals becoming "Renaissance" men or women, whereas, and despite its reliance on the "Metroplesque" underground to make it practicable, this is achieved, along with a six-hour work day, in Utopia. The interesting use of mercenaries in warfare and foreign relations and the stigmas attached to precious metals and pearls (for bondsmen and children respectively) point to the absurdity of surviving ideas about value and money. The use of Plato suggests a reinvention of the Commonwealth of centuries before, whereas Jonathan Swift, too, draws on the folk tradition to protect himself from his own political commentary, albeit over a century later, but relying on similarly strange peoples with startlingly homogeneous cultures. But, taken in its times, More seems to have done a good deal of the theorising for Marx to arrive and merely iron out the shortcomings. Despite my familiarity with the work, there is much fruit to be harvested by taking the time to read thoroughly what one has previously learnt second-hand. Yet I am pleased that our education system is remarkable in that, despite its secondary-source nature, the synopses I (at least) have received are true to form, if otherwise lacking in detail.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    Summary: Sir Thomas Moore sets forth his ideas for the ideal society. This books was instrumental in discussion of our own government. Quote: "Thus you see that there are no idle persons among them, nor pretences of excusing any from labor. There are no taverns, no ale houses, nor stews among them, nor any other occasions of corrupting each other, of getting into any corners, or forming themselves into parties; all men live in full view, so that all are obliged both to perform their ordinary task and to employ themselves well in their spare hours; and it is certain that a people thus ordered must live in great abundance of all things, and these being equally distributed among them, no man can want or be obliged to beg."
  • Rating: 5 out of 5 stars
    5/5
    This is the kind of book that wouldn't be done justice with just one read-through. One should carefully read, reread, analyze, take a break from, and read again. Every time I read it, I pick up on something new or come to a different conclusion about what More might have meant. It's truly fascinating, especially for the fact that the reaction upon reading may in fact reveal more about the reader than it does about More or the work itself. I've never met anyone who takes exactly the same thing away from it as someone else, and have been constantly amazed at the various insights people have that never occurred to me. To hear one's impressions of the book is to have a small window into their mind. For the sheer amount of thought and introspection Utopia provokes, I feel it is a must-read. Much is said about the actual description of Utopia, but I would encourage readers to pay just as much attention to the first portion of the book, where Raphael is introduced and speaks with his companions (the character versions of More and Giles). One might also want to keep in mind that Utopia (as opposed to Eutopia- "good place"), despite modern usage, means "no place" rather than some sort of ideal. Just as Raphael Hythlodaeus/Hythloday is a "speaker of nonsense", Utopia/"no place" is not so simple as to be the description of a perfect society. Or is it? That ambiguity is the beauty of More's work.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    The work begins with written correspondence between Thomas More and several people he had met on the continent: Peter Giles, town clerk of Antwerp, and Jerome Busleiden, counselor to Charles V. More chose these letters, which are communications between actual people, to further the plausibility of his fictional land. In the same spirit, these letters also include a specimen of the Utopian alphabet and its poetry. It is a great book that allows one to think about human nature. Utopia itself is an imaginary place that is nonexistent. Many have wondered over the years why More even wrote it. I forces one to consider that if the government of a place allows circumstances to occur that remove mans ability to take care of basic needs on a just and right way, should they be punished when they achieve it by breaking their laws?
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    Utopia is a work written by Thomas More in response to the grave inequality and injustice in 16th Century England. It is difficult to take seriously, unlike the Politics and the Republic, as though it borrows heavily from ancient Greek thought, it is concerned more with satirising and correcting the problems of the times than with philosophising and arguing towards something absolutely ideal. This is made obvious in several ways: the account of Utopia is given by a traveler who has supposedly been there, and the names of the country, the cities, rivers, people, etcetera are all jokes, several of the policies in the country are merely told to ridicule current western practice, and many of the details are capricious and not given reasons for.Underlying the satire is a serious message though, that through equality, fair dealing, and general niceness, general happiness can be achieved. Utopia seems less practical than other works on ideal states, as well as less ideal, but as a commentary on 16th Century England it excels. To understand the reasoning behind this book it only needs to be understood in context. Contemporary England was unfair, property was being taken from the peasants by the thousands, to use to pasture sheep to make money for the government and the wealthy via the wool trade. This lead to a large proportion of the population being homeless and without means to survive, they turned to crime to survive and in turn were hanged for petty crimes, while the rich were living it up and swaggering round in fine clothes and jewels.More being an all round good egg disliked this, and this is why an essentially communist system is advocated here, communism being an improvement on severe feudalism, and blind equality being an improvement on gross inequality. The state described here would have seemed close to perfection for the average inhabitant of England at the time, but it doesn't stand up today in comparison to the superior systems described in the more rationally thought out Greek political writings. More gets away with it though, and this remains a worthwhile read, as a satire and a work of humour it compensates for its theoretical failings. What lets it down politically are the extreme socialist and communist values, which just don't strike me as satisfying. I prefer the proportionate equality described in Aristotle's Politics, and don't believe a system where everyone is treated exactly the same would work. More when writing this did not intend it to be taken completely seriously, but it is hard to tell quite where he is joking and where he is serious; this probably lessens its worth as a piece of political philosophy, but on the whole makes it more enjoyable a read.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    The word "utopia" was coined by More for his book from Greek for "no" and "place." There's some controversy as to whether this work is meant as serious or satire. Given not just the name of no place but things like the explanation of why the island is not reachable (someone coughed when the location was announced) I suspect the later. Moreover, this ideal state seems notably radical for a man who was famously a very orthodox Catholic. There's equality between the sexes (sorta), divorce, married and women priests, sanctioned euthanasia and religious tolerance (sorta). And it's a state without lawyers imagined by a man for whom that was his profession. I can't imagine from all I know of the man that what he presents is his ideal. I think it's more satire, more fanfic of Plato's Republic, than serious prescription. I mean c'mon, the slaves' chains are made of gold, children use jewels as playthings? Even the surname of the narrator, Raphael Hythloday, means "spreader of nonsense." Anyone really think More meant this all seriously? It's certainly not my ideal. Utopia is a republic that elects it's leaders. But like Plato's ideal republic it's one where lives are very tightly controlled. Where people live and their work is chosen by the state; there's no private ownership, no privacy, internal passports, sexual mores are legally enforced. There's even slavery--prisoners of war and people who have violated any of the republic's tyrannical laws. It sounds closer to China during Mao's cultural revolution than anyplace I'd want to live in. About the only aspects I can see as positive are the (relatively) egalitarian relationships between the sexes, the (relative) religious tolerance, the idea of keeping laws few and simple so that all could understand, and elected leadership. Which goes to show, one person's utopia is another's dystopia. Part of why I'm skeptical of utopias left and right--they often seem to crush too many individuals along the way to perfection, and I don't know what I'd find more horrifying, what you'd have to do to reach this utopia, or what it would be like to live under it--although goodness knows, we came close enough during the 20th century and it wasn't pretty. But what I'm reviewing and rating is not this imagined society, but this book about imagined societies. And I do love the idea of this kind of thought experiment, even if often I find attempts to create them (or at least impose them) wholesale the source of much evil. More might even agree with me. Given the satiric elements, I do think this is more about how utopias are unworkable than admirable. And you know, I think More gets it. There's this passage, said by the the character representing More himself:I don't believe you'd ever have a reasonable standard of living under a communist system. There'd always tend to be shortages, because nobody would work hard enough. In the absence of a profit motive, everyone would become lazy, and rely on everyone else to do work for him. Then, when things really got short, the inevitable result would be a series of murders and riots, since nobody would have any legal method of protecting the products of his own labour.That. Or they just starve to death. So I suspect those criticizing More as a commie are missing the mark. Some also complain this is a slog. Yet there is wit and humor here, and though some parts were tedious, well, it is short--only 134 paperback pages, not including notes, in my edition. Also More might have been an Englishman, but he wrote the book in Latin, so that means if you're reading it in English it's a translation. The first such translations didn't appear until after More's death. So if you're suffering from one with Middle English affectations, that's not More's fault--it's the translation you picked. I definitely think whatever you think of More's imaginary land, encountering these ideas are worth the read.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    A highly influential classic with interesting letters but including pedantic essays heavily influenced by socialism.
  • Rating: 3 out of 5 stars
    3/5
    Thomas More's Utopia is nearly five centuries old yet it's still quite relevant and poignant today. It's somewhere between a fictional travelogue and a philosophical political treatise. I found it especially interesting that many of the complaints presented still ring true 500 years later. The sixteenth century writing can be a little dry at times but the narrative style and presentation are readily accessible and sometimes rather humorous.As I dove into this book I knew very little about it other than it was supposed to be More's outline of the "perfect city/state." Interestingly (as pointed out in some of the notes and introduction I read), the word "Utopia" is derived from Greek words and means both "good place land" and "no place land" simultaneously. So strangely it suggests that this is both a "good place" and that it doesn't (or can't) exist. That paradox was an interesting starting point for me as I read.The book is divided into two parts. The first "book" starts with letters between More and other real-life characters. This epistolary method of writing was quite common especially when trying to frame the reality of the situation. The letters work to introduce the characters and discussion that follows and to emphasize the significance of the information we are about to read. It also serves to introduce us to a character named Raphael who has apparently journeyed to the land of Utopia and has a great deal of expertise and respect for their customs and practices.The rest of "book 1" consists of a dialog between the recipients of these letters. The dialog includes criticisms of various political policies (primarily European) ranging from wars and international relations down to property rights, poverty and punishment of criminals. It is suggested that perhaps Raphael should go into politics as an advisor. The reply seems to be rather cynical in suggesting that the kings or rulers wouldn't listen to Raphael and that the current flaws of the system will simply be allowed to perpetuate rather than be healed. The best result Raphael could see would be that the leaders may be depressed at the knowledge of the flaws but wouldn't be willing to fix them. A worse result would be that Raphael would be run out of court as a wicked corruptor of society.The second "book" in Utopia goes beyond the philosophical discussions and into the specific details about the land of Utopia. First we get some general geographic details followed by information about the physical makeup of cities, communities and families. We're taught about the leaders of the society both how they're elected and what they do. We get significant detail about the nature of work within Utopia and the nature of property. We learn about international relations between Utopia and the outside world. We learn about their trade policies, immigration and emigration policies and how they handle wars. We're told in detail about criminal punishment, slavery, household relations (marriage, divorce, etc) and their concept of religion. Each aspect is presented in great detail and with various examples of implementation as well as sometimes comparing their methods to the flawed methods of European countries.Probably the biggest overall aspect of Utopia is the idea of a wholly communal society. There is no private property. There is no real hierarchy or aggrandizement of any individual, occupation or organization. Those who "lead" certain affairs of the country do so out of necessity for the greater overall good and not with the hopes of "looking good" or getting rich or leaving some sort of legacy. Criminals generally become slaves though their method of slavery is quite humane. The idea is that people are motivated to be good in order to keep the peace and to avoid the shame and restrictions that come in "slavery." The status quo is further maintained by making it a crime to not properly carry your own load. Laziness and idleness are not permitted. If you do not do your particular job, you are a criminal and become a slave.The Utopian concepts here are often (and rightly) seen as precursors to Marxist systems of government. The distinction is that More's Utopia is outlined as a pure and complete communistic society. Everything is in common from the property to the work to the rewards. Furthermore, while the society strives to improve through education, technology and other means the improvements are seen as existing to better the society as a whole and are taken in such a way as to provide mutual benefit to all involved. They would not consider any illicit means for obtaining advantage or influence. There is no place for pride or greed.The entire concept sounds very appealing and interesting on paper. There are also many very sound concepts that could see great success in practice. However, in trying to envision the society truly being put into practice, the problems come with the "humanity" of humans. Specifically the pride, greed, laziness and other vices of humanity. Over time, individuals would become bored or otherwise dissatisfied and try to change things. The book suggests that others in society would squash such desires and disallow any groups of such people to disrupt the system. Unfortunately the desire for power, influence or wealth will inevitably allow someone to find a way of scrambling to the top, even in a society with no formal "top."The idea of doing away with a monetary system and everybody working for the good of society is an ideal that would have potential if it could be sustained. But all it takes is a few small disruptions in the process and soon the whole system collapses in on itself.From a literary standpoint, Utopia is fun in that it seems to be the predecessor to a genre that's gaining popularity now. That being the utopian novel (and its friend, the dystopian novel, which is all the rage right now). I love reading about societies trying to become "perfect" in every way. It's such a great ideal. I find the dystopian concept very intriguing as well since it generally showcases the way these utopian societies will often overstep their bounds and collapse on themselves or become the enemy.Overall this was a very interesting read. I can definitely see it as being an influential book on political theory. Taking the concepts "off the page" becomes a rather interesting philosophical investigation into the nature of humanity and the things that help us rise or fall through generations. ***3 out of 5 stars
  • Rating: 3 out of 5 stars
    3/5
    Interesting to read. I liked seeing the perspective of some issues in More's time.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    In a very interesting way More paints his ideal state - state of Utopia. Here, all the virtues of men are cherished while all foolishness and - well, let us call them - all the bad things in society are non-existent, due to the very nature of Utopians, their state and the very way of their educational system.Interesting book, a rather subtle critique of the European states of the time (especially when it comes to vanity of the rich and uneven distribution of wealth among the populace - again some virtues glorified in the book may prove obsolete today [because of that ever-lasting temporal element that stands between writer and the reader or maybe some political reasons] but were focus of many a debate at the time). Man cannot but agree with many aspects of Utopia to be the very ideal - dedication to knowledge and constant strive to be better human being - but the required level of social maturity is so high that even today (maybe especially today) it may be considered to be way too high.Again, society itself is not peace loving as it may seem at the beginning - when faced with conflict (forced upon them or caused by them - for territory e.g) Utopians won't hesitate to fight, but first they will extensively use their allies (motivated by political means - sounds familiar does not it) to end the conflict rarely entering the fray themselves. This makes them very modern and in my opinion less ideal society. Again, those societies that reach the level of Utopians can be forgiven to feel supreme to every other nation/society and to behave in the manner they do - but nevertheless this stains their reputation.Very questions that arise in this book - like is it better to have free roaming citizenry without any restraints thus causing havoc on most on behalf of few, or to have ordered and disciplined society that will have limited liberties but live freely and under the benevolent government - are very common themes in SF literature (there exists no better example than Heinlein's "Starship Troopers").Writing style may be difficult but don't give up - book gives a rather good view of human nature and a lot can be learned from it.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    An easy, reasonable quick read. More has some interesting communist ideas, infused with his version of Christianity and agrarianism. Many of his critiques about then-contemporary English/European society are still quite applicable.
  • Rating: 3 out of 5 stars
    3/5
    I actually found this book to be quite boring. Sure, it's a classic. Sure, it outlines a theoretically equal world. But honestly, I found it difficult to keep engaged in what I was reading. How boring would life be if it were like what this book describes!
  • Rating: 1 out of 5 stars
    1/5
    i couldn't get past the stilted language to get into this book. by the time i got into the groove i really just didn't think he had much to say. i had hoped for a lot more from this, and was sorely disappointed.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    The work begins with written correspondence between Thomas More and several people he had met on the continent: Peter Giles, town clerk of Antwerp, and Jerome Busleiden, counselor to Charles V. More chose these letters, which are communications between actual people, to further the plausibility of his fictional land. In the same spirit, these letters also include a specimen of the Utopian alphabet and its poetry. It is a great book that allows one to think about human nature. Utopia itself is an imaginary place that is nonexistent. Many have wondered over the years why More even wrote it. I forces one to consider that if the government of a place allows circumstances to occur that remove mans ability to take care of basic needs on a just and right way, should they be punished when they achieve it by breaking their laws?
  • Rating: 5 out of 5 stars
    5/5
    Written about 1515 or 1516 and worth reading see pages 93 at bottom e.g. rich managing selfishly and 95 last para eg However, there are many things in the commonwealth of utopia that I rather wish, than hope, to see followed in our governments.He of course was beheaded and later made a Saint.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    This is another one of those classic books that everyone should read. It was written in 16th century England so the language can make reading this a bit difficult/tedious. But it is worth it.This is a small book but it is broken down into two sections. The first book is letters between Sir Thomas More and several people he met. The reader is introduced to Raphael, whose the main character. The second book is about Utopia. The reader learns what life is like there, how things are run. For instance, people are re-distributed around the households in the Utopia to keep numbers even. People wear the same type of clothing, no one is unemployed. Everything is kept as equal as possible. What I found interesting abotu Utopia was that it was a welfare state, not unlike the U.S., but it was taken to the extreme. I liked this book and I would recommend it to everyone. Again, it's a classic and everyone should read this at least once in their life time.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    Utopia is the book that put the word "utopia" in our lexicon. Utopia, the word, is generally used to describe a place in which everything is a happy land where everybody is happy, and life is relatively easy. Like most children's fiction, where even the most dastardly of villains is just a litterbug or a liar, and he or she learns a valuable lesson before too many pages have passed.The book itself is written as a frame story in which More is telling others about his visit of a man named Raphael (though his last name depends on which translation you're reading), who told him about this wonderful island in the New World called Utopia, in which everybody is happy, even the slaves!Raphael goes on to explain the aspects of this island, and how it works, presenting a sort of proof-of-concept for better living (hint, hint, you new, developing nations in the New World!).No study of utopian writing is complete without at least starting here, so this book is highly recommended to any utopian (or even dystopian) reading schedule. It's also highly recommend if you like philosophical writing, and are looking for some great new ideas to consider.
  • Rating: 5 out of 5 stars
    5/5
    One of the classic that has withstood the critics throughout the years. It was written in 1516. The work was written in Latin and it was published in Louvain (present-day Belgium). Utopia is a work of satire, indirectly criticizing Europe's political corruption and religious hypocrisy. Many believe it may had been a major influence of the Protestant Reformation which begun the following year in 1517. Many later works has been based upon it.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    This is a welcome translation of an important book in the history of ideas. It is not an exaggeration to say that our idea of utopia is founded in great part on the presentation of the world in this notable book. It is one of the small number of volumes that had an exponential effect on the way we consider the world around us.
  • Rating: 2 out of 5 stars
    2/5
    If this audiobook hadn't been a free offer, I would never have tried to listen to this classic instead of reading it. I have found that I have a very hard time absorbing difficult or factual or philosophical material via audiobook. Knowing that, I did an 'immersion' read with this book, reading the text as I listened. So my low rating isn't a reflection upon Simon Prebbles narration per se (though his somewhat gravelly voice did tend to make me sleepy!).Thomas More's vision of a idyllic society was somewhat disappointing for me. The society he describes had some fascinating aspects but as a modern woman, there were a few too many chauvinistic attitudes. I also had some issues with some of the religious aspects such as this passage:"he [Utopus] therefore left men wholly to their liberty, that they might be free to believe as they should see cause; only he made a solemn and severe law against such as should so far degenerate from the dignity of human nature, as to think that our souls died with our bodies, or that the world was governed by chance, without a wise overruling Providence: for they all formerly believed that there was a state of rewards and punishments to the good and bad after this life; and they now look on those that think otherwise as scarce fit to be counted men, since they degrade so noble a being as the soul, and reckon it no better than a beast’s: thus they are far from looking on such men as fit for human society, or to be citizens of a well-ordered commonwealth; since a man of such principles must needs, as oft as he dares do it, despise all their laws and customs: for there is no doubt to be made, that a man who is afraid of nothing but the law, and apprehends nothing after death, will not scruple to break through all the laws of his country, either by fraud or force, when by this means he may satisfy his appetites."
  • Rating: 5 out of 5 stars
    5/5
    “Thus I am wholly convinced that unless private property is entirely done away with, there can be no fair or just distribution of goods”“When I run over in my mind the various commonwealths flourishing today, so help me God, I can see nothing in them, but a conspiracy of the rich, who are fattening up their own interests under the name and title of the commonwealth”“If money disappeared, so would fear, anxiety, worry, toil, and sleepless nights. Even poverty, which seems to need money more than anything else for its relief, would vanish if money were entirely done away with.Sir Thomas More’s Utopia is littered with seemingly revolutionary thoughts and ideas like those above; has been claimed as an early example of medievalism, modernism, socialism, communism; it has also been claimed by protestants, catholics, idealists and even Nazis, but why on earth would a reactionary churchman like Thomas More write and publish such a tract? It has to be a joke doesn't it?. If it is then the joke is on More because his invented Utopia has passed into common usage today as an ideal world.More’s story is simplicity itself. He is introduced by his friend Peter Giles to Raphael Hythloday, who is visiting London after a voyages across uncharted seas searching for new lands. He has chanced upon the island of Utopia where he believes he has found the perfect society and is eager to return. Before Raphael can tell his story of the wonders of Utopia, he describes a dinner he had attended with Cardinal Morton and a distinguished lawyer. More uses a first person narrative for Raphael to describe the evils of the way England is currently ruled paying particular attention to the plight of the poor and the infirm. Rafael’s knowledge of foreign countries and the society’s he has witnessed on his travels leads him to propose alternative ways of dealing with the ills of England. The Utopians are introduced into the conversation and More and Peter Giles are eager to learn more details of how their society is organised and so they arrange to have dinner with Raphael and his descriptions of Utopia take up the whole of Book Two.Utopia’s geography (although not where it can be found), its cities, its social organisation, its work habits, its relations with other countries, moral philosophy, art of warfare and their religion are all lovingly described by Raphael. There are no interruptions from More or his friend as a picture of Utopia emerges. Of course there are contradictions in the story and it soon emerges that a Utopian society is based on discipline at the expense of liberty. The pursuit of pleasure for all and the good of the commonwealth cannot be achieved without restrictions on freedom that would be unacceptable to people in Thomas Mores’s circle. A point he makes on the final page of his book when he allows himself to think about what he has heard:“……but my chief concern was to the basis of the whole system, that is, their communal living, and their moneyless economy. This one thing alone takes away all the nobility, magnificence, splendour, and majesty which (in the popular view) are considered the true ornaments of any nation”Utopia was published in 1516 just about the same time as copies of Machiavelli’s “The Prince” were appearing and on the face of it the books are worlds apart. Machiavelli’s advice to his Prince is based on pragmatism and commercialism with the basic premise that a ruler always needs to be tougher and/or fairer than his opponents to maintain his position and/or increase his power.. More’s Utopia is based on a shared communalism where everybody benefits from just laws with the pursuit of pleasure for all being the chief aim. However running underneath both books is an undercurrent of pessimism; a pessimism that bites deep into the human psyche. I think that Machiavelli and More took a similar view of mankind, they saw around them people whose natural instincts were totally selfish, anarchic and sinful, whose wilful pursuit of riches and power had to be kept in check.Thomas More as far as we can judge was an ambiguous character; "a man for all seasons", in his early life particularly he was much respected in humanist circles, a friend of Erasmus and known for his wit and sagacity, however when he became active in public life; C R Elton says that “he remained determined to apply coercion and judgement to dangerous sinners, rather than compassion and comprehension.” (he was instrumental in enforcing the ultimate penalty of burning for heretics). There is evidence that he regretted the publication of Utopia and certainly when his circle of friends commented on it they thought it was a delightful little joke. The way More told his story especially by including real people in book one, convinced some people at the time of the validity of Utopia, and while today we are sure that the island of Utopia does not exist, there are still plenty of people who can read into More’s book serious political philosophy.I think it is a satire and no doubt an indictment of early 16th century society, but Raphael Hythloday’s Utopia is an excuse for the witty More to poke as much fun as possible at the society in which he lived. It is a book that is still open to many different interpretations and will produce plenty of ammunition for debate on the ills of current society and how we would like to see a perfect community organised. It is a fun read and at only 85 pages can easily be read in one sitting.I read the Norton Critical Edition, which has some excellent critical essays following a clear and absorbing translation of the text by Robert M Adams. Some contextual information is also included along with extracts from letters that were written by More and his friends, which add immensely to the enjoyment of More’s little book. There are also extracts from other authors attempts at defining a Utopia, which may be of interest. This is a classic that I thoroughly enjoyed and so I rate it at 5 stars.
  • Rating: 4 out of 5 stars
    4/5
    Thomas More brought his considerable skills from numerous fields to bear when he created Utopia. His intimate knowledge of the workings of the English legal system, government and politics enabled him to posit an ideal society, wherein, More corrected the ills which plagued sixteenth century England and Europe.People in Utopia held few possessions privately. The government organ-ized the economy, the methods of producing food and most other goods and ser-vices. Work and hardships were shared as equitably as possible. Similarly, all people partook of the bounty of the food, shelter and goods, with few exceptions.More anticipated the objections that this idealized society would raise; and he answered them at length. He explained how Utopians dealt with criminals, showing a means of isolating society from harmful individuals, while yet deriving benefit from their existence and providing deterrent examples to those teetering on the verge of crime. In an age where torture and mutilation were common and executions were routine, More offered a voice of reason and humanity. Signifi-cantly, his methods of dealing with crime did not mete out the same punishment for all offenses, both severe and trivial.More’s world was based on his well-considered principles, humanistic be-liefs and plain common sense. He was not one-dimensional like Niccolo Machia-velli; More was not driven by desire for power, fame or wealth. He wanted to show a means of organizing a well-ordered society in which the people, not the prince, would live happy and productive lives. On the other hand, More did not set his culture in a world where all was roses and problems did not exist. Whereas Erasmus was strong on encouraging upright and moral behavior, he seemed light on the realization that, in the real world, people often fail to live up to his high ideals. More’s society took man’s frailties into account. More pro-vided means for dealing with crime and war, as well as, with personal envy and greed. More understood that his argument would be the stronger if he could head off objections by answering them in advance.In addition, More’s work showed his love of humor. His organization of the material, arranged as if he had genuinely talked to someone who had been to Utopia, and the overall pains More took to imbue the work with as much authen-ticity as possible, must have been a source of great pleasure to him.Besides giving him a private chuckle at putting over his joke, More had a more serious level in mind in Utopia. Placing his society in an imaginary or dis-tant land, allowed him the freedom to address a variety of political and social is-sues with impunity. Had More directly criticized Henry VIII’s spending, his readi-ness to dispense executions, his policy of war, or the ostentatious court, More would have faced serious charges. By using the oblique approach, besides al-lowing More to indulge his love of irony and satire, he was able to elude charges of treason or sedition. More showed great courage in publishing this work, as in his life in gen-eral. He saw wrongs and dared to speak out about them. But with his fine mind and keen sense of balance, he also knew that to throw himself into championing a cause at the expense of his life would do neither him nor the cause any good. Although he ultimately was martyred for his beliefs, evidence suggests that More did not actively seek our martyrdom. He enjoyed life far too much to risk death needlessly. However, his personal belief in God and religion, as well as his per-sonal integrity, demanded that he not shrink away if death were his only accept-able recourse.Alex Hunnicutt
  • Rating: 3 out of 5 stars
    3/5
    I'm sure Utopia has lost much of its meaning through the translation from its native Latin (By no means is this comment directed at the translation - I think much of the difficulty lies in the inherent limitations of English).For the rating I have given, I considered three things: the general enjoyment from reading the book, the ideas contained within and the historic importance (and context) of the work. Immediately after I finished reading the book, I determined that I didn’t enjoy it. After giving it much thought, I’m still not sure why that is – possibly the difficulty I have with the concept that all men are created equal, yet women are subservient to men (although, given the historical context, Moore can hardly be chastised for that), the inherent flaws I see in the ability of any society to function as described, or even some of the other more subtle difficulties I see with the novel (such as attempting to applying logical debate to religion).The difficulty I’m also faced with is the degree to which Moore is suggesting that Utopia would be the perfect society (particularly since he states within the text that he does not agree with all of the Utopian ideals) and the degree to which it is a work of satire (a highly debated topic among academics - see for example the introduction in the Penguin Classics edition).
  • Rating: 2 out of 5 stars
    2/5
    First published in 1516 (in Latin), the book we usually call “Utopia” originally had a much longer title, which can be roughly translated as “Concerning the Best State of a Republic and the New Island of Utopia.” It was not translated and published in English until 1551. At first, I was surprised that the language of the copy I read seemed quite modern for a book written in the 16th century, but I now realize that it was a recent translation of the original Latin rather than the first English translation.Thomas More, the author, was councillor to Henry VIII, and Lord High Chancellor of England. Working for Henry was even more perilous than working for Donald Trump (at least, so far) — More was beheaded in 1532 for refusing to take the king’s Oath of Supremacy. The book takes the form of a discussion among fairly learned men, one of whom purports to have visited the mythical island of Utopia. More intended the word utopia to mean “no place.” In modern English, it has come to mean impractically ideal. The book itself is part satire, part wish fulfillment, and the society described is indeed impractically ideal.In some ways More was a precursor to Karl Marx. The Utopians had no need for money because everyone worked hard enough to produce ample goods and shared them with everyone else. No one took more than he needed. Such an arrangement is unlikely to prosper among real human beings. Although More was describing what he may have thought to be an ideal society, he expressed a few ideas that seem repugnant to the modern reader. For example, the Utopians kept slaves, although slavery was a form of punishment for breaking the law. In addition, the Utopians were wont to extend the boundaries of their society by sending their men:“…over to the neighboring continent, where, if they find that the inhabitants have more soil than they can well cultivate, they fix a colony, taking the inhabitants into their society if they are willing….But if the natives refuse to conform themselves to their laws they drive them out of those bounds which they mark out for themselves, and use force if they resist, for they account it a very just cause of war for a nation to hinder others from possessing a part of that soil of which they make no use….”This sounds a lot like white Americans justifying Manifest Destiny. The Utopians had the same disputes of moral philosophy as the 16th century English. However, More says they “never dispute concerning happiness without fetching some arguments from the principles of religion as well as natural reason.” They spend their lives in pursuit of pleasure, but the pleasures they pursue are of a virtuous kind, forsaking “foolish…pleasure [like] hunting, fowling, or gaming, of whose madness they have only heard, for they have no such things among them.” More’s own attitude toward Utopia and the Utopians is a bit ambiguous, in that he concludes the book with the sentiment that: “I cannot perfectly agree to everything [described above]. However, there are many things in the commonwealth of Utopia that I rather wish, than hope, to see followed in our governments.” Utopia is significant historically, but I don’t think it has much practical to say about forming a just society. It is more a description of what a just society would look like if its citizens were not as self serving, untrusting, and greedy as real humans. (JAB)

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L'Utopie - Thomas More

Introduction

L’Utopie de Thomas Morus est un renseignement précieux pour les économistes qui étudient les diverses phases de la science sociale ; pour les hommes d’état attentifs aux développements de la politique anglaise.

Du reste, cette publication n’est pas l’œuvre de l’esprit de parti. Il y a loin de la société vraiment évangélique de Thomas Morus au communisme sensuel et athée de nos jours.

Une autre différence essentielle sépare l’Utopie de la plupart des systèmes de nos réformateurs modernes.

Ceux-ci brisent d’un seul coup les nationalités. La nationalité d’un peuple n’est pas, à leurs yeux, la ceinture de sa force et de son indépendance, mais la chaîne qui le retient esclave et affaibli. Ils font des plans immédiats pour le genre humain ; ils prennent tous les peuples à la fois, sans distinction d’âge ni de mœurs ; puis les jettent pêle-mêle dans le moule où doit se fondre la grande famille homogène, une, indissoluble.

Thomas Morus ne procède pas ainsi. Son livre n’est pas précisément le code du genre humain, ni le programme de la paix universelle. C’est plutôt une formule d’organisation intérieure et de politique extérieure, à l’usage d’une nation distincte qui, pour un Anglais, ne pouvait être que l’Angleterre. Cette nation, au point de vue de l’auteur, a sur les pays voisins la supériorité d’intelligence, de richesse, d’activité et d’influence. Peu à peu elle les absorbe dans sa propre substance ; elle les assimile à sa vie sociale par le commerce, la colonisation, la conquête. Cette assimilation progressive de plusieurs peuples en un seul n’est-elle pas la marche naturelle des choses ? Du moins, l’histoire tend à prouver que, jusqu’à présent ; telle a été la loi des destinées humaines.

La rédaction de l’Utopie est rapide, concise et méthodique ; on voit que l’auteur n’avait pas de temps à perdre, et qu’il se pressait d’enfermer une foule d’idées sous le plus petit volume. La forme de l’ouvrage est très simple ; c’est une conversation intime où Thomas Morus aborde ex abrupto les questions les plus neuves et les plus difficiles. Sa parole est tantôt satirique et enjouée, tantôt d’une sensibilité touchante, souvent d’une énergie sublime. Chez cet homme de bien, le cœur parlait aussi fort que la tête.

L’Utopie se divise en deux livres : l’un critique et l’autre dogmatique.

Le premier livre est le miroir fidèle des injustices et des misères de la société féodale ; il est, en particulier, le martyrologe du peuple anglais sous le règne de Henri VII. Ce prince, qu’une insurrection avait fait roi, eut à combattre plus d’une insurrection pour se maintenir. Il versa donc le sang de ses sujets ; mais sa préoccupation dominante fut de prendre leur argent, par tous les moyens qu’un pouvoir à peu près sans limite fournissait à la cupidité la plus effrénée. Il entassa impôts sur impôts, couvrit l’Angleterre d’un vaste réseau de prohibitions, de délits et d’amendes, et fit de la justice un vrai crible, par où il tamisait toutes les fortunes privées. Le Parlement, au lieu de résister aux ignobles instincts du monarque, lui servait absolument de machine à battre monnaie[1].

Le peuple d’Angleterre n’était pas seulement la victime de l’avarice de son roi, d’autres causes d’oppression et de souffrance le tourmentaient encore. La noblesse possédait, de commun avec le clergé, la majeure partie du sol et de la richesse publique ; et ces biens immenses, placés dans des mains paresseuses ou égoïstes, demeuraient stériles pour la masse des travailleurs. De plus, à cette époque d’anarchie, les grands seigneurs entretenaient à leurs gages une multitude de valets armés, soit par amour du faste, soit pour s’assurer l’impunité, soit pour en faire des instruments en toute occasion de violence ou de débauche. Cette valetaille était le fléau et la terreur du paysan et de l’ouvrier. D’un autre côté, le commerce et l’industrie de la Grande-Bretagne ne pouvaient avoir qu’une existence chétive et bornée, avant les voyages de Colomb et de Gama. L’activité infatigable de ce peuple, qui menace aujourd’hui d’envahir tout le globe, se consumait dans les guerres civiles, ne trouvant pas d’issue au dehors. Ainsi, les générations s’accumulaient sans but, sans travail et sans pain. L’agriculture tombait en ruine, parce que la culture proprement dite était délaissée pour l’élève des bêtes à laine, opération qui donnait alors de brillants bénéfices. En conséquence, les gros capitalistes accaparaient le sol outre mesure, changeaient les terres labourables en prairies ; ce qui réduisait une foule de gens de la campagne à la plus affreuse disette.

Ce triste état de choses multipliait nécessairement dans une progression effrayante la mendicité, le vagabondage, le vol et l’assassinat. Au lieu de guérir tant de maux par une administration habile et bienfaisante, les politiques du temps ne savaient leur appliquer d’autres remèdes que la prison et le bourreau. La loi anglaise était même sévère jusqu’à l’absurdité et la barbarie ; elle tuait indistinctement le voleur et l’assassin, pressée, pour ainsi dire, de noyer la misère publique dans le sang.

On concevra maintenant l’amertume des critiques et la violence des colères de Thomas Morus contre une société aussi profondément désorganisée. Sa malédiction est impitoyable pour le privilégié oisif et corrompu ; sa compassion, pleine d’amour et de larmes pour le malheureux qui travaille et qui souffre. Depuis l’Utopie, rien n’a été écrit de plus hardi, de plus neuf, de plus révolutionnaire et de plus démocratique en fait de démolition et de réforme. À lire ces pages toutes brûlantes de la passion de la justice, on croit entendre le jugement dernier des iniquités sociales, et comme une prophétie des terribles représailles exercées par Cromwell, et chez nous par 93.

Si l’auteur de l’Utopie est dans la vérité quand il attaque la législation et l’administration de son pays, il n’a pas le même droit d’accuser la politique de la France. Louis XII et François Ier étaient des types d’honneur et de loyauté auprès de souverains tels que Ferdinand le Catholique, Maximilien Ier, Jules II, Léon X et Henri VIII. Mais l’année où l’Utopie fut écrite (1516), le cardinal Wolsey, violant les traités d’avril 1515, payait secrètement l’invasion du duché de Milan par l’empereur, préparait une coalition contre François Ier, et cherchait à détacher le peu d’alliés fidèles à ce prince. Thomas Morus, que le cardinal avait récemment chargé d’une mission diplomatique en Flandre, devait subir l’influence de ces événements, sans parler de l’influence éternelle de l’antagonisme national. Voilà pourquoi il épouvante ses lecteurs du fantôme de l’ambition de la France ; rappelle à l’archiduc Charles ses mariages manqués avec les princesses Claude et Renée ; rappelle aux Vénitiens le traité de Blois et la ligue de Cambrai, qui leur reprit Crémone et la Ghiarra d’Adda ; pourquoi il justifie, par l’énumération de prétendus griefs, la violation flagrante des traités que la cour de Londres commettait alors.

Le plus singulier de ces griefs est dans le reproche adressé au ministère français de se méfier de la stabilité de l’alliance anglaise. Certes, il y avait de bonnes raisons pour cela ; et, au commencement du seizième siècle, cette alliance se manifestait déjà extrêmement inconstante et mobile. Depuis le 23 mars 1510 jusqu’en avril 1515, l’Angleterre avait fait avec la France trois traités d’amitié et de paix, et signé contre elle trois ligues de guerre offensive. À l’heure même où l’auteur de l’Utopie se plaint de la méfiance des ministres français, Wolsey continuait à ourdir cette suite d’intrigues d’où sortit la ligue défensive de Londres, du 29 octobre 1516[2].

Ainsi, l’on voit que Thomas Morus s’égare d’une façon étrange dans ses récriminations. En cette occasion et en plusieurs autres, il parle comme un véritable Anglais, toujours armé de ce patriotisme exclusif et partial, qui est le fond du caractère de cette nation, et constitue peut-être un des premiers éléments de sa force.

Néanmoins, il faut le reconnaître, cet homme, dont l’honnêteté était en exemple à son siècle, traversa le monde diplomatique avec dégoût. Sa conscience se trouvait mal à l’aise dans ces négociations, où l’ambition, le mensonge et la perfidie s’agitaient sous une enveloppe fastueuse de religion, de morale et d’honneur. Lui-même l’écrivait à son ami Érasme en ces termes : « Vous ne croirez pas avec quelle répugnance je me trouve mêlé à ces affaires de princes ; il n’est rien au monde de plus odieux que cette ambassade. » In negociis istis principum haud credas quàm invitus verser ; neque potest esse quicquàm odiosiùs mihi quàm est ista legatio. (Epistola ad Erasmum.)

Après avoir abattu, Thomas Morus se met en œuvre d’édifier. Il a convaincu de déraison et de vanité la plupart des institutions établies, flétri leurs turpitudes et leurs abus ; il a jeté par terre la vieille société. Il va dérouler, au second livre de son ouvrage, le plan d’une vie sociale toute nouvelle, que Platon avait rêvée, et que les premiers chrétiens pratiquaient volontairement, selon ces paroles des Actes :

« Tous ceux qui croyaient étaient égaux et avaient toutes choses communes. — Ils vendaient leurs possessions et leurs biens et les distribuaient à tous, selon les besoins de chacun[3]. »

L’exposition du système utopien est facile à résumer.

L’Utopie est une île dont les habitants se divisent en cités égales pour la population et le territoire. — La cité se divise elle-même en familles égales pour le nombre des membres, mais qui professent chacune un métier, une industrie à part. — La propriété individuelle et les valeurs monétaires sont abolies ; tout appartient à la communauté.

Le gouvernement est électif et se compose d’un prince nommé à vie, mais révocable ; d’un sénat et de magistrats populaires.

Le sénat dresse annuellement la statistique générale de l’île. — Il vérifie l’état de la population, les besoins de l’année courante, la somme existante des produits de l’agriculture, du commerce et de l’industrie. D’après ces données, la richesse nationale est distribuée, par portions égales, à chaque cité, où elle se ramifie entre les familles, jusqu’aux individus. — Des lois particulières déterminent la durée journalière du travail habituel, règlent l’exécution des travaux extraordinaires et d’utilité publique, maintiennent l’équilibre de la population.

Les familles se perpétuent au moyen du mariage, tempéré par le divorce.

L’éducation est publique. Elle comprend un enseignement élémentaire, uniforme et commun à tous. Ensuite, elle devient professionnelle et spéciale, et se continue dans les cours publics, ouverts à tous les citoyens, pendant les heures libres.

Les peines des grands crimes sont l’esclavage et les travaux forcés, très rarement la mort, jamais la réclusion permanente et isolée.

Il y a une religion publique tellement simple et générale dans ses dogmes et les cérémonies de son culte, qu’elle ne peut heurter aucune conscience. Toutes les croyances sont protégées et respectées, à l’exception de l’athéisme et du matérialisme. La manifestation des doctrines de cette dernière espèce est prohibée ; on les regarde comme une dépravation attentatoire à l’existence sociale.

Finalement, les institutions utopiennes sont calquées sur la nature humaine, et n’ont en vue que son entier perfectionnement. Elles assurent d’abord à chacun la satisfaction des besoins légitimes du corps ; mais la vie de la chair n’étant que la moitié de l’homme, elles développent aussi soigneusement, chez tous les citoyens, l’exercice des facultés de l’esprit. En sorte que la science, la philosophie, la morale, l’industrie, les arts et la culture font en ce pays de merveilleux progrès.

Les mœurs du peuple utopien sont en harmonie parfaite avec ses institutions. L’on n’y connaît pas les vices qui dégradent, les passions qui troublent les individus, les familles et les états. La fraternité, l’amour de l’ordre et du travail, le respect des magistrats, le dévouement à la patrie, la foi religieuse, la modération dans le plaisir, le mépris du luxe et des distinctions frivoles y sont des vertus communes et ordinaires.

Thomas Morus omet souvent des détails nécessaires à l’intelligence complète et à l’application de son plan. Souvent il se contente de poser des principes et des faits généraux, de combiner les termes les plus simples du problème. Cependant, la solution qu’il donne est encore le produit d’un beau génie, et laisse en arrière bien des choses écrites ou innovées depuis trois siècles, en fait d’administration civile, de système pénitentiaire et d’éducation publique. Mais le mérite essentiel, le mérite principal de l’Utopie est d’avoir tenté une œuvre, dont la réalisation doit être sans doute la tendance caractéristique des progrès ultérieurs de l’humanité. Nous voulons parler de l’accord à établir entre les droits et les devoirs, la liberté et la loi, l’égalité et la hiérarchie, la science et la religion, le bonheur terrestre et la morale chrétienne.

Il a été dit, au début de cette introduction, que l’Utopie n’était pas précisément le code du genre humain, ni le programme de la paix universelle. Cela se confirme par la lecture du second livre, et la conduite de la république utopienne à l’égard de l’étranger. — La politique de ce peuple-modèle s’éloigne absolument des principes d’égalité et de justice, qui président à son organisation intérieure. Elle porte l’empreinte de ces temps de machiavélisme raffiné, où Thomas Morus composa son livre ; elle sent l’impure école de César Borgia.

L’Utopien, modeste dans la vie privée, est insolemment fier de la supériorité de son pays ; il méprise les autres nations, et prendrait de droit toute la terre, s’il en avait besoin, pour s’y loger et vivre. Ce peuple ne reconnaît pour alliés que ceux qui lui demandent des lois et des chefs, acceptent sa protection, son commerce et son empire. Non content de posséder au loin d’immenses territoires, il veut encore être l’arbitre des continents qui l’avoisinent. Quand l’honneur ou l’intérêt lui commandent une guerre, il commence par inonder le pays ennemi de proclamations, d’or et d’agents secrets, afin de soulever les révoltes et les déchirements ; de soudoyer la guerre civile et l’anarchie ; de pousser à la trahison les généraux et les ministres ; de provoquer à l’assassinat du chef de l’État et des hommes les plus dangereux. Si tous ces moyens de décomposition intérieure ne suffisent pas, il organise une coalition, et fait entrer en campagne les armées étrangères. Enfin il marche en dernière ligne avec ses auxiliaires ; le sang utopien est trop précieux, il ne faut le verser qu’après que le sang des alliés a fini de couler.

Ici la pensée se reporte, malgré soi, sur la conduite constamment suivie par les conseillers d’un état voisin ; et ces luttes systématiques, monstrueuses, que soutint la France pendant la révolution et l’empire.

Quoi que l’on fasse de cette observation, il est clair que le peuple utopien, souverainement juste, et humain chez lui et pour lui, se montre dans ses relations extérieures, souverainement despote, cruel et perfide.

D’où vient une contradiction aussi tranchée, de la part d’un écrivain dont la probité est devenue proverbiale ? On peut l’attribuer premièrement à une exagération patriotique mal entendue, mais surtout aux déceptions répétées que l’Angleterre avait subies, de 1511 à 1515.

Durant cette courte période, le cabinet de Londres s’était maladroitement mêlé des affaires d’Italie. Croyant enlever à la France deux ou trois provinces, il avait prodigué ses soldats et ses trésors au seul profit du roi d’Aragon, du pape et de l’empereur[4]. Ces mystifications ruineuses lui ouvrirent les yeux. Il comprit qu’il était la dupe de ses alliés, et qu’en définitive la ruse et la fourberie leur avaient servi, beaucoup plus qu’à lui l’audace et la victoire. Sans doute les diplomates anglais, et Thomas Morus avec eux, trouvèrent-ils convenable et utile d’adopter, en principe, cette politique inqualifiable, justifiée à leurs yeux par le succès, et dont la politique utopienne est la traduction[5].

Maintenant,

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