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    Physical Properties of Rocks: Fundamentals and Principles of Petrophysics
    Physical Properties of Rocks: Fundamentals and Principles of Petrophysics
    Physical Properties of Rocks: Fundamentals and Principles of Petrophysics
    Ebook945 pages7 hours

    Physical Properties of Rocks: Fundamentals and Principles of Petrophysics

    By Juergen H. Schön

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    About this ebook

    The interpretation of geophysical data in exploration geophysics, well logging, engineering, mining and environmental geophysics requires knowledge of the physical properties of rocks and their correlations. Physical properties are a "key" for combined interpretation techniques. The study of rock physics provides an interdisciplinary treatment of physical properties, whether related to geophysical, geotechnical, hydrological or geological methodology.

    Physical Properties of Rocks, 2nd Edition, describes the physical fundamentals of rock properties, based on typical experimental results and relevant theories and models. It provides readers with all relevant rock properties and their interrelationships in one concise volume. Furthermore, it guides the reader through experimental and theoretical knowledge in order to handle models and theories in practice.

    Throughout the book the author focuses on the problems of applied geophysics with respect to exploration and the expanding field of applications in engineering and mining geophysics, geotechnics, hydrology and environmental problems, and the properties under the conditions of the upper Earth crust.

    • Physical Properties of Rocks, Second Edition,
      •  guides readers through a systematic presentation of all relevant physical properties and their interrelationships in parallel with experimental and theoretical basic knowledge and a guide for handling core models and theories
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherElsevier Science
    Release dateNov 26, 2015
    ISBN9780081004234
    Physical Properties of Rocks: Fundamentals and Principles of Petrophysics
    Author

    Juergen H. Schön

    Jürgen H. Schön is a consulting petrophysicist and Honorary Professor at Montanuniversität Leoben. Schön was educated at Bergakademie Freiberg (Mining Institute of Freiberg), Germany, where in 1962 he graduated with a Diploma in geophysics; in 1967 he received his Doctor of Natural Science. In his career, Schön has held a variety of academic positions: at the Bergakademie Freiberg he was Professor and Head of the Geophysics Department (1987-1991). In 1991, he moved to the Institute of Applied Geophysics, Joanneum Research, in Leoben, Austria; where, from 2000 to 2004, he was the science manager of the geophysical institute. In 1993, he was a visiting Professor at the Colorado School of Mines. In 1999 he became Honorary Professor at the Montanuniversität Leoben. In his academic positions he was also a thesis supervisor for students studying formation evaluation. Since 1999 he has expanded his teaching beyond university and has taught training courses (Petrophysics, Formation Evaluation) for industry.

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      Es un complemento excepcional para la mecánica de rocas aplicada a la industria petrolera (Geomecanica Petrolera).
      Ayuda a la compresión de muchos ensayos de laboratorio y su aplicabilidad práctica

    Book preview

    Physical Properties of Rocks - Juergen H. Schön

    Physical Properties of Rocks

    Fundamentals and Principles of Petrophysics

    Second Edition

    Jürgen H. Schön

    Montanuniversität Leoben, Austria

    Table of Contents

    Cover image

    Title page

    Copyright

    Preface

    Acknowledgements

    Chapter 1: Rocks—Their Classification and General Properties

    Abstract

    1.1 Introduction

    1.2 Igneous Rocks

    1.3 Metamorphic Rocks

    1.4 Sedimentary Rocks

    1.5 Physical Properties of Rocks—Some General Characteristics

    1.6 Measurements of Rock Samples and Core Analysis

    Chapter 2: Pore Space Properties

    Abstract

    2.1 Introduction

    2.2 Porosity

    2.3 Specific Internal Surface

    2.4 Fluids in the Pore Space—Saturation and Bulk Volume Fluid

    2.5 Permeability

    2.6 Capillary Pressure

    2.7 The Digital Core—A Look into the Pore Space

    Chapter 3: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR): Petrophysical Properties

    Abstract

    3.1 Introduction

    3.2 The Principle of an NMR Measurement

    3.3 NMR Relaxation Mechanisms of Fluids in Pores and Fluid-Surface Effects

    3.4 Applications

    Chapter 4: Density

    Abstract

    4.1 Definition and Units

    4.2 Density of Rock Constituents

    4.3 Density of Rocks

    Chapter 5: Nuclear/Radioactive Properties

    Abstract

    5.1 Fundamentals

    5.2 Natural Radioactivity

    5.3 Interactions of Gamma Radiation

    5.4 Interactions of Neutron Radiation

    5.5 Application of Nuclear Measurements for a Mineral Analysis

    5.6 Combination of Gamma–Gamma Density and Neutron Porosity—Multiple Porosity Methods

    Chapter 6: Elastic Properties

    Abstract

    6.1 Fundamentals

    6.2 Principles of Laboratory Measurements

    6.3 Elastic Properties of the Rock Constituents

    6.4 Velocity of Rocks—Overview

    6.5 Velocity of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks

    6.6 Velocity of Sedimentary Rocks

    6.7 Anisotropy

    6.8 Theories

    6.9 Reservoir Properties from Seismic Parameters

    6.10 Attenuation of Elastic Waves

    Chapter 7: Geomechanical Properties

    Abstract

    7.1 Overview: Introduction

    7.2 Classification Parameters

    7.3 Fundamental Geomechanical Properties and Processes

    7.4 Correlation Between Static and Dynamic Moduli

    7.5 Correlation Between Seismic Velocity and Strength Properties

    7.6 Some Remarks About Shale Brittleness

    Chapter 8: Electrical Properties

    Abstract

    8.1 Fundamentals

    8.2 Electrical Properties of Rock Components

    8.3 Specific Electrical Resistivity of Rocks

    8.4 Clean Rocks—Theories and Models

    8.5 Rocks with Electrolytic Conductivity and a Second Conductivity Component—Shaly Rocks, Shaly Sands

    8.6 Laminated Shaly Sands and Laminated Sands—Macroscopic Anisotropy

    8.7 Dielectric Properties of Rocks

    8.8 Complex Resistivity—Spectral Induced Polarization

    Chapter 9: Thermal Properties

    Abstract

    9.1 Introduction

    9.2 Thermal Properties of Minerals and Pore Contents

    9.3 Thermal Properties of Rocks—Experimental Data

    9.4 Theories and Models

    9.5 Relationships Between Thermal Conductivity and Elastic Wave Velocities

    Chapter 10: Magnetic Properties

    Abstract

    10.1 Fundamentals and Units

    10.2 Magnetic Properties of Rock Constituents

    10.3 Magnetic Properties of Rocks

    Chapter 11: Model Equations and Excel Worksheets

    Abstract

    11.1 Mixing Rules and Models for Electrical and Thermal Properties

    11.2 Excel Worksheets for Model Calculations

    Appendix

    Appendix A Physical Properties of Rock-Forming Minerals

    Appendix B Some Conversions

    References

    Index

    Copyright

    Preface

    William Blake (1757–1829)

    Petrophysics, beginning with Archie's historical yet evergreen equations, has a key function in all applications of geosciences, petroleum engineering and related technologies. It helps us to understand the processes and controlling properties and creates relationships between parameters we can measure as output of the dramatic progress in exploration techniques and properties we need for reservoir characterization (hydrocarbons, water, minerals, geothermal energy), exploration of natural resources, geotechnical constructions and environmental protection.

    Therefore, there is an increasing interest to understand, develop and apply these relationships. From this motivation, the first edition of the textbook Physical Properties of Rocks—Fundamentals and Principles of Petrophysics was published in 1996. In addition in 2011, the textbook Physical Properties of Rocks—a Workbook was published.

    The main title Physical Properties of Rocks and parts of the two books look similar. The first mission of Physical Properties of Rocks—Fundamentals and Principles of Petrophysics—and also of this second edition—is the description of the physics behind rock properties and the different influences and correlations between physical and geological properties of rocks. This book has the character of a textbook. On the other hand, Physical Properties of Rocks—A Workbook is directed on the application of the presented experimental data and empirical and theoretical equations (therefore the name workbook) and focused on reservoir rocks.

    I hope this new edition will be included into the collection of different books about petrophysics. For techniques like seismic investigations, nuclear magnetic resonance measurements and spectral methods, excellent textbooks are available (for example Mavko, Mukerji, and Dvorkin, 1998, The Rock Physics Handbook; Fjaer, Holt, Horsrud, Raaen, and Rines, 2008, Petroleum-Related Rock Mechanics; Tiab and Donaldson, 2012, Petrophysics). Practical applications and techniques are described in manuals and, for example, in a recent book Practical Petrophysics (M. Kennedy, 2015).

    Thus, acknowledging this highly sophisticated, specialized and detailed world of petrophysical books and literature, my wish is to give a comprehensive presentation of fundamentals from my point of view. For this purpose, I have prepared a selection of model-based equations in an Excel worksheet for practical applications and training. Users can work with their data or play in order to demonstrate the effects of various input information and to enjoy petrophysical work.

    As a student, I had the one-volume book Theoretische Physik (Theoretical Physics) by Georg Joos) with the preface: This book should not be a lift carrying the reader without energy on the tops of science. It should be only a simple mountain guide, leading on an elevation, which gives the view on the top of the mountains and acts as a ‘base camp’ for reaching these tops. I have learned to understand this fundamental function of a base camp as a location to prepare and to find motivation for the next levels from the real life experiences of our son Peter, when he voyages high on the fascinating summits of the mountains in our world.

    Over the course of my professional life, I’ve had the happiness to work on the fascinating subject rocks, and as always, as well as with this book, I have the wish to transform and share a little of this fascination of studying rocks, to show the pleasure we get from the investigation of the natural rock and its beauty:

    to see a world in a grain of sand, and a heaven in a wild flower, held infinity in the palm of your hand and eternity in an hour …

    Supplementary materials for this book is available in the following link: http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780081004043/

    Acknowledgements

    I wish to express my deepest gratitude to all my friends, colleagues and students for their indispensable help, for sharing ideas, and for giving me the motivation to complete this work.

    Over the course of my professional life, I have had the honour and pleasure to work with and to learn from many wonderful people, and to share a common enthusiasm.

    The opportunity to teach at universities, particularly Bergakademie Freiberg/Germany, Montanuniversität Leoben, Technical University Graz/Austria, and at the Colorado School of Mines/Golden laid the foundation for a fruitful teamwork with students—their response to a book like this is of substantial importance.

    Some of my former students have followed the petrophysics way and helped me, for example, with experimental data—one of the rarest components in our science. Frank Börner has contributed valuable insight for electrical properties. Nina Gegenhuber made measurements of elastic and thermal properties and developed components of Rock Physics Templates. Edith Müller-Huber contributed to carbonate properties and model calculations.

    I have expanded teaching beyond the university to training courses for industry—a completely new and valuable experience with the important response of the practice. I thank Baker Atlas (Houston) and HOT Engineering (Leoben) for placing the fundamentals of petrophysics as an integral component of geosciences in their programs and for supporting this work. I thank my colleagues and dear friends, Daniel Georgi and Allen Gilchrist, for a long cooperation in teaching petrophysics and research.

    I would like to give special thanks to Erika Guerra and my son Peter for editing big parts of the manuscript.

    Thanks to the staff at Elsevier for constructive cooperation and patience; special thanks to Hannah Colford and Vijayaraj Purushothaman for valuable support and our friendly productive communication during the whole process.

    I would like to give thanks to various companies and organizations for giving me permission to use their valuable materials—particularly Baker Atlas/Baker Hughes, Schlumberger, AAPG, EAGE, SEG, SPE and SPWLA.

    Writing a book requires a creative environment and people who can motivate you and focus your energy. My wife Monika has done a perfect job in the background—many thanks. Also, our son Peter is such an energizing factor—his discipline to work for an idea gave me confirmation to use the time we have to do valuable things.

    Chapter 1

    Rocks—Their Classification and General Properties

    Jürgen H. Schön    Montanuniversität Leoben, Austria

    Abstract

    Rocks are naturally occurring aggregates of one or more minerals. In the case of porosity or fracturing, they also contain fluid phases. With respect to their geological genesis and processes, rocks are divided into three major groups:

    – igneous rocks (magmatites),

    – metamorphic rocks (metamorphites), and

    – sedimentary rocks (sediments).

    Rocks are characterized by their composition (minerals, fluids), texture, and structure.

    Of specific interest are sedimentary rocks with respect to their reservoir properties. Clastic (sandstone) and carbonate (limestone, dolomite) rocks are the most common reservoir rocks. Clay and shale have a strong influence upon rock properties and are discussed.

    Some core measurement techniques for laboratory determination are compiled.

    Keywords

    Igneous rocks

    Metamorphic rocks

    Sedimentary rocks

    Clastic rocks

    Sandstone

    Shale

    Carbonate rocks

    Limestone

    Dolomite

    Core analysis

    1.1 Introduction

    Rocks are naturally occurring aggregates of one or more minerals. In the case of porosity or fracturing, they also contain fluid phases. With respect to their geological genesis and processes, rocks are divided into three major groups:

    • igneous rocks (magmatites),

    • metamorphic rocks (metamorphites), and

    • sedimentary rocks (sediments).

    Figure 1.1 shows the rock cycle. It starts with the magmatic rocks, formed by crystallization from the magma.

    Figure 1.1 The rock cycle.

    Chemical processes and processes of erosion, disintegration, and transportation create sedimentary rocks of different composition and texture.

    Both types can be transformed into metamorphic rocks through the influence of pressure and temperature; a reworking by melting and recrystallization also occurs.

    The following sections briefly describe the three rock types. Sedimentary rocks are discussed in more detail with respect to their importance to fluid reservoir exploration (e.g. hydrocarbons, water) and their abundance on the earth's surface. A detailed classification of rocks and their abundances on the earth is given by Best (1995) in A Handbook of Physical Constants/AGU Reference Shelf 3.

    1.2 Igneous Rocks

    Igneous rocks are formed by crystallization from a molten magma. Three types are characterized by their occurrence and position in the crust:

    • plutonic rocks crystallized in great depth and forming large rock bodies,

    • volcanic rocks reaching the surface, in many cases forming layers of rocks like a pillow or blanket, and

    • dikes with dominant vertical extension and a horizontal extension in one direction. They frequently separate geological units.

    Igneous rocks can be classified according to their chemical or mineralogical composition. Chemical classification distinguishes acid, intermediate, basic, and ultrabasic rocks. Mineralogical classification uses the types (see also Fig. 1.2):

    Figure 1.2 Mineralogical classification of common magmatic rock types. Modified http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mineralogy-igneous_rocks.

    • felsic or silicic rocks, examples are granite, rhyolite,

    • intermediate rocks, examples are granodiorite, diorite, dacite, andesite,

    • mafic rocks, examples are basalt, gabbro,

    • ultramafic rocks, example is peridotite.

    Mineral composition controls physical properties (e.g. density and seismic velocity increases from felsic to mafic rock types).

    Table 1.1 shows the mean mineral composition of magmatic rocks.

    Table 1.1

    Approximate Average Mineral Composition (Volume Percent) of the Earth's (Upper) Crust and of Major Intrusive Rocks

    After Wedepohl, 1969; see also Huckenholz (1982)

    1.3 Metamorphic Rocks

    "Metamorphic rocks are the result of metamorphism. Metamorphism is the solid-state conversion of igneous and sedimentary rocks under the pressure–temperature regime of the crust" (Huckenholz, 1982). During this process, the original mineral assemblages (magmatic or sedimentary) are converted into new assemblages corresponding to the thermodynamic conditions over a geologic time.

    Through the different metamorphic processes (regional metamorphism, contact metamorphism, cataclastic metamorphism, etc.), the great variety of original rocks and their composition results in a broad spectrum of metamorphic rock types. Typical members of these metamorphic rock types are phyllites, schists, gneisses, skarns, marbles, felses, quartzites, serpentinites, and amphibolites.

    As a result of the metamorphic process, many rocks show a typical structure with parallel-oriented elements like mineral axes, fractures, and fissures. This results in anisotropy of certain physical properties.

    1.4 Sedimentary Rocks

    1.4.1 Overview

    Sedimentary rocks are highly important for hydrocarbon exploration; most commercial reservoirs occur in this rock type characterized by its porosity and permeability. Sedimentary rocks cover more than 50% of the earth's surface and are therefore also of fundamental importance in many aspects of our lives, from agriculture to the foundations of buildings, and from groundwater resources to the whole environment.

    Sedimentary rocks are formed by a sequence of physical, chemical, and biological processes:

    • Magmatic, sedimentary, and metamorphic source rocks are disaggregated by weathering to:

    – resistant residual particles (e.g. silicate minerals, lithic fragments),

    – secondary minerals (e.g. clays),

    – water-soluble ions of calcium, sodium, potassium, silica, etc.

    • Weathered material is transported via water, ice, or wind to sites and deposited:

    – mineral grains drop to the depositional surface,

    – dissolved matter precipitates either inorganically, where sufficiently concentrated, or by organic processes,

    – decaying plant and animal residues may also be introduced into the depositional environment.

    Lithification (consolidation) occurs when the sedimentary material becomes compacted; aqueous pore solutions interact with the deposited particles to form new, cementing diagenetic (authigenic) minerals (Best, 1995).

    We distinguish three major rock classes of sedimentary rocks:

    (1) clastic: broken from a pre-existing rock (e.g. sandstone),

    (2) chemical: formed by chemical precipitation as carbonates (limestone, dolomite) or as evaporates (e.g. gypsum, anhydrite, salt), and

    (3) organic: formed by biological precipitation and by accumulation of organic material (peat, coal, limestone, diatomite).

    Sandstones and carbonates are the most common reservoir rocks.

    Siliciclastics are composed of various silicate grains. Carbonates consist mainly of only the two minerals dolomite and calcite. Clastic sediments have been transported over long distances, whereas carbonates are formed on-site (mostly marine). Clastic sediments are relatively chemically stable; they form an intergranular pore space.

    Carbonates, on the other hand, are chemically instable; their pore space is very complex and controlled by a variety of influences.

    In addition to the mineral composition for geological characterization of rocks in general and for sedimentary rocks in particular, the term lithology is used. The American Geological Institute Glossary of Geology defines lithology as the physical character of a rock. This character is influenced mainly by mineral composition (mineralogy) and texture of the solids (Jorden and Campbell, 1984).

    1.4.2 Clastic Rocks

    1.4.2.1 Classification

    Clastic rocks are formed by:

    • erosion, reworking, and transportation of rock components,

    • deposition and sedimentation of the material, and

    • compaction and diagenetic processes.

    Typical members of this important group of rocks are conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, shale, and claystone.¹

    The classification in the main types (sandstone, siltstone, and claystone) follows the grain size classification for clastic sediments (Fig. 1.3).

    Figure 1.3 Classification of clastic sediments according to grain size; f: fine, m: medium, c: coarse. The terms psephites, psammites, and pelites are defined for more than 50% weight of the corresponding grain size range.

    The nomenclature of clastic sedimentary rock is given by the following rules:

    • Sandstone is composed of > 50% sand-sized particles. The mineral composition is dominated by quartz and feldspar.

    • Siltstone is composed of > 50% silt-sized particles; they are generally less rich in quartz than is sandstone (Jorden and Campbell, 1984).

    • Claystone is composed of > 50% clay-sized particles; they are generally formed by clay minerals.

    Sandstones are further classified by mineral composition and texture; frequently used is the classification after Pettijohn et al. (1987) or Dott (1964).

    The term shale describes a sedimentary rock type which is a mixture of clay-size particles (mainly clay minerals), silt-size particles (quartz, feldspar, calcite), and perhaps some sand-size particles as, for example, quartz, occasionally feldspar, calcite (Jorden and Campbell, 1984). Serra (2007) wrote "the average composition of shale is 59% clay minerals, predominantly illite; 20% quartz and chert; 8% feldspar; 7% carbonates; 3% iron oxides; 1% organic material; and others 2%… Mudstone is a rock having the grain size and composition of a shale but lacking its laminations and/or its fissility …". As an example, for Pierre shale, Borysenko et al. (2009) give the following mineral composition: quartz 29%; kaolinite, chlorite 8%; illite, muscovite, smectite 26%; mica 24%; orthoclase, dolomite, albite 13%.

    Many properties of shale are controlled by the clay components (for example gamma radiation, electrical properties, cation exchange capacity, neutron response).

    For understanding physical properties of sedimentary rocks, it is important to distinguish the different terms referred to as shale and clay (Fig. 1.4):

    Figure 1.4 Clay and shale: (a) authigenic kaolinite, Carter sandstone Black Warrior basin, Alabama ( Kugler and Pashin, 1994); (b) Posidonia shale, Southern Germany ( Schatzmann et al., 2012).

    • clay describes a group of minerals (hydrous aluminium silicates),

    • clay also defines a particle size (< 0.002 mm), and

    • shale describes a rock type as defined above (claystone also refers to a rock type).

    The physical properties of clastic sediments are strongly controlled by:

    • textural properties (particle dimensions, size, shape, spatial orientation), and

    • mineral composition, mainly the presence and effect of clay minerals.

    1.4.2.2 Textural Properties

    The term texture encompasses particle or grain size and size distribution, shape, and packing of the solid particles in clastic sediments.

    Grain size is the classifying and defining parameter for clastic rocks. In general, particles are of non-spherical shape; thus the grain diameter depends on the technique of its determination:

    • sieve analysis gives an estimate closed to the minimum cross-sectional axis (corresponding to the used mesh size) or a sphere equivalent measure following Stokes’ law (sedimentation analysis), and

    • image or laser-scanned techniques allow the application of numerical algorithms for a representative size description.

    Grain size d frequently is given in mm or in μm (1 μm = 1 micron = 10− 3 mm). The phi-scale is also used

       (1.1)

    where d is in mm.

    Rocks show a distribution of grain sizes. This is described by a cumulative distribution curve (grain size distribution curve). Figure 1.5 gives an example. From the grain size distribution, various statistical measures or parameters can be derived using defined percentiles referred to as the cumulative weight percent (wt.%):

    Figure 1.5 Grain size distribution curve for two sediments.

    median grain size gives the midpoint of the curve at d50 (grain size in mm of 50th percentile),

    , where d25 is the grain size (mm) of 25th percentile and d75 the grain size (mm) of 75th percentile, and

    .

    Grain shape (sphericity) describes how nearly a particular grain approaches the shape of a sphere. Grain roundness (angularity) measures the sharpness of edges and corners. Comparison charts are used for both properties.

    Grain packing is a measure of the density of the grain aggregates. In terms of physical properties, the spatial arrangement of the individual particles can be defined as internal structure—it controls, for example, anisotropy properties.

    Blott and Pye (2001) give a systematic compilation of the different granulometric measures and algorithms for a rapid analysis of grain size statistics from standard measuring techniques. Mean, mode, sorting, skewness, and other statistics are calculated arithmetically and geometrically (in metric units) and logarithmically (in phi units); the worksheet used is based on Excel.

    1.4.2.3 Some Fundamental Clay Properties

    Particularly in logging practices, the terms shale and clay are used interchangeably; the difference was previously discussed in Section 1.4.2.1. Shale is a fine-grained rock; it contains a fraction of clay minerals and silt.

    Clay minerals are aluminosilicates with a sheet structure. The principal building elements are two types of sheets or units:

    (1) a tetrahedral unit of a central Si atom and surrounding O atoms, and

    (2) an octahedral unit of O atoms and OH groups around a central Al atom.²

    Clay minerals (kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite, and chlorite) are characterized by different stacking combinations or architecture of the two building elements (Fig. 1.6). Individual figures always represent one crystal.

    Figure 1.6 Clay minerals and some clay mineral properties. Compiled after Jorden and Campbell (1984).

    Montmorillonite has a water layer between the two units; the amount of water varies so that the size also ranges between 9.7 × 10− 10 m and 17.2 × 10− 10 m (9.7 and 17.2 Å). Water trapped between the units or layers influences electrical conductivity and contributes to total porosity (but not to effective porosity).

    In the tetrahedral sheet, silica (Si⁴ +) is sometimes partly replaced by aluminium (Al³ +); in the octahedral sheet, aluminium (Al³ +) can be replaced by magnesium (Mg² +) or other atoms (e.g. iron). Such a replacement by atoms of lower positive valence results in an excess of negative charge. This excess is compensated for by adsorption of cations (Na, Ca, Mg) from the adjacent water and an electric double layer is formed. The compensating cations on the layer surface can exchange with other cations. The number of the exchangeable cations is measured by the cation exchange capacity (CEC). Montmorillonite has a high CEC value, but kaolinite and chlorite without interlayer cations have low CEC. Clays with high CEC play a leading role in the electrical conduction of shales and shaly sands (see Section 8.5). In case of radioactive ions, the ability of clay minerals to adsorb ions results in a contribution to natural radioactivity (see Section 5.2) (Table 1.2).

    Table 1.2

    Typical Values for Clay Mineral Properties (Ellis and Singer, 2007)

    Note the trend: with increasing specific surface (see Section 2.3) CEC and wet clay porosity increase.

    The effect of clay minerals depends on the mineral properties and the type of clay distribution. There are three fundamental types:

    (1) Dispersed: clay is formed within the sediment when clay crystals precipitate from pore fluids,

    (2) Laminated: clay is of detrial origin, i.e., formed outside the sandstone framework, and

    (3) Structural: clay is of diagenetic origin, i.e., formed within the sandstone framework as a deposit of clay clasts.

    1.4.3 Carbonate and Evaporate Rocks

    1.4.3.1 Introduction

    The non-clastic carbonate and evaporate rocks are formed mainly by chemical and biochemical precipitation in special environments (typically warm, shallow, clear marine water in low latitudes). In carbonates, secondary porosity is usually more important than primary porosity. The major sources of secondary porosity are fracturing, solution, and chemical replacement.

    A fundamental description of carbonates and their properties is given in the textbook written by Lucia (2007). Regarding the need to understand carbonate reservoirs better, a special section on carbonates appears in the May 2005 issue of THE LEADING EDGE. For log interpretation problems, Akbar et al. (1995, 2000) give an overview.

    With respect to its abundance and economical importance, it is of interest that "though carbonate rocks make up only 20% of the sedimentary rock record, carbonate reservoirs hold 60% of the world's petroleum reserves …" (Chopra et al., 2005).

    1.4.3.2 Composition

    Carbonates have autochthonous origination (formed very close to the depositional site), whereas clastics sandstone and shale are formed of transported sedimentary particles mostly from sources outside the depositional site.

    The most abundant carbonate minerals are calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). Secondary minerals are anhydrite, chert, and quartz. Accessory minerals are phosphates, glauconite, ankerite, siderite, feldspars, clay minerals, pyrite, etc., depending on the environment of deposition and diagenetic history.

    The two main rock types are:

    (1) Limestone: composed of more than 50% carbonates, of which more than half is calcite.

    (2) Dolomite: composed of more than 50% carbonates, of which more than half is dolomite. Dolomite can precipitate directly from a solution containing Mg, Ca, and carbonate ions or by chemical alteration of limestone or calcareous mud (dolomitization). Dolomite frequently forms larger crystals than the calcite it replaces (Al-Awadi et al., 2009) and forms good reservoir properties.

    Carbonates are modified by various post-depositional processes such as dissolution, cementation, recrystallization, dolomitization, and replacement by other minerals. Dolomitization is associated with an increase of porosity.

    The interaction with meteoric pore fluids can result in a leaching of grains and can influence reservoir quality in both directions (new pore space, cementation).

    Fracturing as a result of stress and stylolithification are diagenetic processes in carbonates; they can create high-permeability zones and permeability barriers or baffles.

    Evaporate sediments are a special type of sedimentary rock that is formed from the concentration of dissolved salts through evaporation (for example rock salt/halite).

    1.4.3.3 Classification

    Carbonates are deposited biologically and contain fossil fragments and other particles with complicated morphology and shape. This results in complex pore structures in general. Dissolution, precipitation, recrystallization, dolomitization, and other processes increase this complexity over scales.

    Different types of porosity and complex pore size distributions also result in wide permeability variations for the same total porosity, making it difficult to predict their producibility. Therefore, the analysis of carbonate pore geometries is the key to characterize the reservoir properties of this group of rocks.

    For carbonates, two main types of classification have been developed:

    (1) Textural classification (Dunham, 1962) based on the presence or absence of lime mud and grain support and ranges from:

    • grain-supported grainstones, mudstones and packstones to

    • mud-supported wackestones and mudstones, and

    • crystalline or boundstones.

    (2) Fabric selective and non-fabric selective pore-type classification (Choquette and Pray, 1970) including:

    • fabric selective (interparticle, intraparticle, intercrystal, moldic, fenestral, shelter, and framework), and

    • non-fabric selective (vug and channel, cavern, and fracture) porosity.

    In his fundamental description of carbonate rocks, Lucia (1983, 2007) gives a classification as presented in Fig. 1.7.

    Figure 1.7 Petrophysical classification of carbonate pore types. Based on Lucia (1983, 2007).

    The complex pore system of carbonate reservoirs ranges from microcrystalline pores to large vugs or caverns. The petrophysical characteristics are controlled by connected networks of interparticle pores (matrix), vuggy pore space, and fractures, where:

    • the matrix occupies the major portion of the reservoir, stores most of the fluid volume but has a low permeability, and

    • the fractures (and vugs) occupy a small portion of reservoir volume but have high permeability and control the fluid flow (Iwere et al., 2002).

    A classification and description of carbonate pore geometries is also given in Schlumberger's Carbonate Advisor (www.slb.com/carbonates) as follows:

    – Micropores, with pore-throat diameters less than 0.5 μm, usually contain mostly irreducible water and little hydrocarbon.

    – Mesopores, with pore-throat diameters between 0.5 and 5 μm, may contain significant amounts of oil or gas in pores above the free-water level (FWL).

    – Macropores, with throats measuring more than 5 μm in diameter, are responsible for prolific production rates in many carbonate reservoirs, but often provide pathways for early water breakthrough, leaving considerable gas and oil behind in the mesopores above the FWL.

    – Vugs are cavities, voids, or large pores in rocks. Vugular porosity is common in rocks prone to dissolution, such as carbonates.

    1.4.4 Comparison of Siliciclastic and Carbonate Sediments

    In siliciclastic rocks, many physical properties (elastic wave velocity, electrical resistivity, permeability) show a strong correlation to porosity. In carbonate rocks, correlations superimposed by the heterogeneous pore distribution, pore type, pore connectivity, and grain size (Westphal et al., 2005). Table 1.3 compares some prominent properties of the two main groups of reservoir rocks.

    Table 1.3

    Some Prominent Properties of Siliciclastic and Carbonate Rocks

    1.5 Physical Properties of Rocks—Some General Characteristics

    The term petrophysics was created for physics of reservoir properties ‘Petrophysics’ is suggested as the term pertaining to the physics of particular rock types … This subject is a study of the physical properties of rock which are related to the pore and fluid distribution … Archie (1950), the pioneer in the application and quantification of rock physical relations to geosciences and petroleum engineering.

    Rocks in most cases are heterogeneous composites; only monomineralic rocks like rock salt or anhydrite contain only one mineral type. Heterogeneity becomes more contrasted if pores and fractures, filled with fluids, are present. Mineral composition, porosity/fracturing, and internal rock structure therefore influence the physical rock properties (Fig. 1.8).

    Figure 1.8 Rock properties and their main influence parameters and dependencies.

    On the other hand, physical rock properties (for example elastic, electrical, nuclear properties) can be used to characterize rocks with respect to properties and parameters of interest (for example reservoir properties, geomechanical properties). This leads to a classification of rock properties into the following two main groups or types:

    (1) properties of direct interest for application: reservoir properties (porosity, saturation, permeability), geomechanical properties (deformation, strength), mineralogical characteristics (shale content, fractional mineral composition), content of substances of interest (ore content), and

    (2) properties relevant to the various geophysical methods (elastic/seismic properties, density, electrical properties, nuclear properties, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) response).

    Properties of interest are subjects of interpretation of geophysical data from surface and borehole measurements. This interpretation is a process of transformation of the second type into the first using additional input information. For the transformation, relationships are applied resulting from:

    • empirical correlations (for example Archie's equation),

    • model-based theories (for example Gassmann's equation for fluid substitution, capillary pore channel models); in most cases theoretical equations need an empirical modification or calibration with experimental data.

    In this book, the most frequently used properties are described. For the physics behind the individual properties, it is important to characterize them with respect to their character as a scalar property (given as one value for the property, no directional dependence of the property) or a tensorial property (given as a tensor with directional dependence). Table 1.4 gives an overview to the properties.

    Table 1.4

    Physical Rock Properties: Classification

    Tensorial character is relevant for rocks with an anisotropy (originated by lamination, preferred direction of fractures, grain axis or mineral orientation, etc.). The terms isotropy and anisotropy refer to the directional dependence of considered (tensorial) properties. Isotropic expresses that a vectorial property has at any point the same magnitude for all directions; if the magnitude shows a directional dependence, then the material is anisotropic.

    Another set of terms is important: homogeneity and inhomogeneity. Homogeneity expresses that any property (scalar or vector) is the same at different points (locations) within the volume; if the properties have different values, then the material is inhomogeneous or heterogeneous.

    In rocks we find all four combinations as schematically presented in Fig. 1.9.

    Figure 1.9 The categories homogeneous–inhomogeneous and isotropic–anisotropic. After Gassmann (1964).

    Both anisotropy and heterogeneity are terms connected with the scale of consideration and definition of a property. A small sample size (core, plug) from a sandstone layer may be homogeneous, whereas a sandstone bed with variation of grain size, shale content, and porosity is heterogeneous. The scale is also fundamental for anisotropy. A typical example is a laminated sand; it may be that the individual small layers are isotropic, but a section as resolved by an electrical logging tool sees an anisotropy (macroscopic anisotropy, see Section 8.6).

    Rock is a multicomponent material with a complicated structure. Consequently, it is difficult to formulate mathematical rock models that adequately describe physical rock properties of rocks. Rock models simplify the subject rock in order to explain the dominant dependencies and give a mathematical formulation for interpretation techniques. Most rock models are developed for a specific

    • type of physical properties (for example elastic or electrical properties),

    • group of rocks (for example porous rocks or fractured rocks).

    Figure 1.10 shows some basic model types. The following chapters give a more detailed discussion.

    Figure 1.10 Some model types to describe physical properties of rocks.

    1.6 Measurements of Rock Samples and Core Analysis

    Empirical fundamentals of rock physics are generated from measurements of rock samples under defined conditions (pressure and temperature). Laboratory measurements determine physical properties (for example pore spaces, or electrical, elastic, thermal properties) for different groups of rocks.

    Core analysis is a special discipline of experimental rock evaluation. It is based on the direct determination of reservoir rock properties on samples. There are two types of core acquisition from wells:

    (1) conventional (or rotary) cores, and

    (2) sidewall core (percussion and rotary sidewall coring).

    A full-diameter core is approximately 1.75–5.25 in. (4.5–13.5 cm) in diameter. For standard laboratory measurements, the core is dissected into multiple plugs (about 1 in. in diameter and 3 in. long).

    In core laboratories, we distinguish between Routine Core Analysis (RCAL) and Special Core Analysis (SCAL) (see Fig. 1.11).

    Figure 1.11 Core analysis directed on reservoir properties—overview.

    Andersen et al. (2013) note The basic description of core material comes from routine analysis. This service includes measurement of porosity, saturation and permeability to answer three fundamental questions about a reservoir. Does the rock contain a fluid-filled space (porosity); does it contain hydrocarbons in that space (saturation); and can those hydrocarbon fluids be produced (permeability)? Core gamma logging provides a link of the core depth to wellbore logging depth, and core computed tomography (CT) scans indicate the core heterogeneity. Core photographs taken in both white and ultraviolet light are used for both documentation and core description. Detailed understanding of a reservoir requires additional measurements obtained in the special core analysis laboratory (SCAL). Electrical measurements obtain Archie exponents for calibrating electrical logging measurements of porosity and saturation, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) core measurements determine a formation-specific cutoff value for the relaxation time from an NMR log. Capillary pressure measurements by mercury injection, centrifuge, or porous plate methods indicate distributions of pore throats and are used to evaluate saturation distribution as a function of height in a formation. Relative permeability determines the multiphase flow character of the formation, and can be performed at ambient or elevated conditions of pressure and temperature. Wettability is determined by Amott-Harvey or USBM methods.

    The limitations and problems of core measurements are:

    • The core is only a small piece of rock and therefore not always representative for a reservoir or a large section. This is a question of homogeneity.

    • Coring and recovery change stress and temperature and may change the rock structure.

    • Plugging, cleaning, and drying process may change wettability of plugs.

    For more details, see the special literature as for example: Amyx et al. (1960), Tiab and Donaldson (2012), Peters (2012), Keelan (1972), Al-Saddique et al. (2000), and API (1998).

    The increasing complexity of reservoir rocks and the development of tomographic techniques promoted a new type of sample investigation—the digital core analysis. High-resolution images of the rock's pores and mineral grains are obtained and processed, and the rock properties are evaluated by numerical simulation at the pore scale (Kalam, 2012).

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    "To view the full reference list for the book, click here"

    ¹ It may be noted that in addition to this main group of clastics (epiclastics) some specific types

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