Groundwater Environment in Asian Cities: Concepts, Methods and Case Studies

Groundwater Environment in Asian Cities

Concepts, Methods and Case Studies

Edited by

Sangam Shrestha

Water Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand

Vishnu Prasad Pandey

Water Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand

Department of Civil Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology and Management (AITM), Nepal

Binaya Raj Shivakoti

Water Resources Management Team, Natural Resources and Ecosystem Area, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Japan

Shashidhar Thatikonda

Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

Foreword

Foreword

Foreword

Foreword

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Section I: Concepts and Methods

Chapter 1: Groundwater as an Environmental Issue in Asian Cities

Abstract

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Case study cities

1.3. Structure of the book

Chapter 2: DPSIR Framework for Evaluating Groundwater Environment

Abstract

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Structure of the framework

2.3. Selection of indicators

2.4. Interpreting the results

2.5. Summary

Acknowledgment

Section II: Groundwater Environment in South Asia

Chapter 3: Water Environment in South Asia: An Introduction

Abstract

3.1. Physiography and climate

3.2. Socioeconomics and environmental issues

3.3. Water availability and withdrawal

3.4. Case study cities

Acknowledgment

Chapter 4: Groundwater Environment in Chitwan, Nepal

Abstract

4.1. Introduction

4.2. About the study area

4.3. Drivers

4.4. Pressures

4.5. State

4.6. Impacts

4.7. Responses

4.8. Summary

Annex 4.1. Calculation of total amount of groundwater abstraction in Chitwan

Chapter 5: Groundwater Environment in Delhi, India

Abstract

5.1. Introduction

5.2. About the city

5.3. Drivers

5.4. Pressures

5.5. State

5.6. Impacts

5.7. Responses

5.8. Summary

Acknowledgments

Chapter 6: Groundwater Environment in Hyderabad, India

Abstract

6.1. Introduction

6.2. About the city

6.3. Drivers

6.4. Pressures

6.5. State

6.6. Impacts

6.7. Responses

6.8. Conclusions and recommendations

Chapter 7: Groundwater Environment in Khulna, Bangladesh

Abstract

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Geology, groundwater aquifers, and climate

7.3. Drivers

7.4. Pressures

7.5. State

7.6. Impacts

7.7. Responses

7.8. Summary

Acknowledgments

Chapter 8: Groundwater Environment in Lahore, Pakistan

Abstract

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Surface and groundwater hydrology of the area

8.3. Drivers

8.4. Pressures

8.5. State

8.6. Impacts

8.7. Responses

8.8. Concluding summary and recommendations

Section III: Groundwater Environment in Southeast Asia

Chapter 9: Water Environment in Southeast Asia: An Introduction

Abstract

9.1. Physiography and climate

9.2. Socioeconomics and environmental issues

9.3. Water availability and withdrawal

9.4. Case study cities

Acknowledgment

Chapter 10: Groundwater Environment in Bandung, Indonesia

Abstract

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Geology, aquifers, and groundwater potentials

10.3. Drivers

10.4. Pressures

10.5. State

10.6. Impacts

10.7. Responses

10.8. Summary

Acknowledgments

Chapter 11: Groundwater Environment in Bangkok and the Surrounding Vicinity, Thailand

Abstract

11.1. Introduction

11.2. About the study area

11.3. Drivers

11.4. Pressures

11.5. State

11.6. Impacts

11.7. Responses

11.8. Summary

Chapter 12: Groundwater Environment in Dili, Timor-Leste

Abstract

12.1. Introduction

12.2. About the city

12.3. Drivers

12.4. Pressures

12.5. State

12.6. Impacts

12.7. Responses

12.8. Summary

Chapter 13: Groundwater Environment in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Abstract

13.1. Introduction

13.2. About the city

13.3. Drivers

13.4. Pressures

13.5. State

13.6. Impacts

13.7. Responses

13.8. Summary

Acknowledgments

Appendix 13.1. Responsibilities of Peoples’ Committee (PC) on water resources

Appendix 13.2. Calculation of groundwater reserves

Appendix 13.3. Details of groundwater-monitoring wells

Chapter 14: Groundwater Environment in Yangon, Myanmar

Abstract

14.1. Introduction

14.2. About the city

14.3. Drivers

14.4. Pressures

14.5. State

14.6. Impacts

14.7. Responses

14.8. Conclusions and recommendations

Section IV: Groundwater Environment in Central and East Asia

Chapter 15: Water Environment in Central and East Asia: An Introduction

Abstract

15.1. Physiography and climate

15.2. Socioeconomic and environmental issues

15.3. Water availability and withdrawal

15.4. Case study cities

Chapter 16: Groundwater Environment in Beijing, China

Abstract

16.1. Introduction

16.2. About the city

16.3. Drivers

16.4. Pressures

16.5. State

16.6. Impacts

16.7. Responses

16.8. Summary

Acknowledgments

Chapter 17: Groundwater Environment in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Abstract

17.1. Introduction

17.2. About the city

17.3. Drivers

17.4. Pressures

17.5. State

17.6. Impacts

17.7. Responses

17.8. Conclusions and recommendations

Acknowledgments

Chapter 18: Groundwater Environment in Seoul, Republic of Korea

Abstract

18.1. Introduction

18.2. About the city

18.3. Drivers

18.4. Pressures

18.5. State

18.6. Impacts

18.7. Responses

18.8. Conclusions and recommendations

Acknowledgment

Chapter 19: Groundwater Environment in Tokyo, Japan

Abstract

19.1. Introduction

19.2. Geology, groundwater aquifers, and climate

19.3. Drivers

19.4. Pressures

19.5. State

19.6. Impacts

19.7. Responses

19.8. Summary

Acknowledgments

Annexure 1: About the Editors

Annexure 2: About the Authors

Index

Copyright

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Notices

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List of Contributors

Aditya Sarkar,     Department of Geology, University of Delhi, India

Anirut Ladawadee,     Bureau of Groundwater Conservation and Restoration, Department of Groundwater Resources, Thailand

Binaya Raj Shivakoti,     Water Resources Management Team, Natural Resources and Ecosystem Area, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Japan

Bui Tran Vuong,     Division of Water Resources Planning and Investigation for the South of Vietnam (DWRPIS), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Vietnam

Domingos Pinto,     Water Engineering and Management at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand

Ekaterina I. Nemaltseva,     Laboratory rational ground water use, Institute of Water Problems and Hydropower, National Academy of Science, Kyrgyz Republic

Gennady M. Tolstikhin,     Kyrgyz Hydrogeological Survey, State Agency on Geology and Mineral Resources of the Kyrgyz Republic

Haryadi Tirtomihardjo,     Center of Groundwater Resources and Environmental Geology (CGREG), Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR), Indonesia

Heejung Kim,     School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Jin-Yong Lee,     Department of Geology, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea

Jingli Shao,     School of Water Resources and Environment, China University of Geosciences, China

Jiurong Liu,     Beijing Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, China

Kabita Karki,     Department of Mines and Geology, Kathmandu, Nepal

Kang-Kun Lee,     School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Khin Kay Khaing,     Department of Geography, University of Yangon, Myanmar

Le Hoai Nam,     Division of Water Resources Planning and Investigation for the South of Vietnam (DWRPIS), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Vietnam

Liya Wang,     Beijing Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, China

Muhammad Basharat,     International Waterlogging and Salinity Research Institute (IWASRI), Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), Lahore, Pakistan

Oranuj Lorphensri,     Department of Groundwater Resources, Thailand

Phan Nam Long,     Division of Water Resources Planning and Investigation for the South of Vietnam (DWRPIS), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Vietnam

Qing Yang,     Beijing Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, China

Qiulan Zhang,     School of Water Resources and Environment, China University of Geosciences (Beijing)

Rabin Malla,     Center of Research for Environment, Energy and Water (CREEW), Kathmandu, Nepal

Rafael G. Litvak,     Ground Water Modelling Laboratory, Kyrgyz Research Institute of Irrigation

Rong Wang,     Land Subsidence Research Institute of Beijing Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, China

Sangam Shrestha,     Water Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand

Shakir Ali,     Department of Geology, University of Delhi, India

Shashank Shekhar,     Department of Geology, University of Delhi, India

Shashidhar Thatikonda,     Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India

Suman Kumar,     Department of Geology, University of Delhi, India

S.V.N. Rao,     WAPCOS, Regional office, Hyderabad, India

Tussanee Nettasana,     Bureau of Groundwater Conservation and Restoration, Department of Groundwater Resources, Thailand

Vishnu Prasad Pandey

Water Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand

Department of Civil Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology and Management (AITM), Nepal

Woo-Hyun Jeon,     Department of Geology, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea

Zhiping Li,     Beijing Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, China

Preface

Groundwater contributes to the sustainable development of many Asian cities by providing water for domestic, industrial, and agricultural uses and by regulating ecosystem flows. In many Asian cities more than half the potable water supply comes from groundwater. In some cities, groundwater abstraction for industrial use is even higher than for potable use. Industrial use in total groundwater abstraction is 80% in Bandung and 60% in Bangkok. In India 60% of irrigated areas are served by groundwater. In Pakistan groundwater provides over 40% of total crop water requirements in the highly populous province of Punjab and 70% of the farmers receive 80–100% of their irrigation water from wells and tubewells. However, groundwater has not always been properly managed, which often has resulted in depletion and degradation of the resource. Much emphasis has been given to groundwater resource development without paying careful attention to its management despite its strategic role in sustainable development. Many cities are already suffering from water insecurity as a result of rapid population growth and economic development. Without proactive groundwater governance, the detrimental effects of poor management will nullify (or even surpass) the social gains made so far. Many cities are already suffering from water insecurity as a result of rapid population growth and economic development. To maintain the advantage of groundwater as an important resource for sustainable development, groundwater management should be more strategic and proactive to cope with increased demand from rapid industrialization and urbanization including the potential impacts of climate change.

This book presents what is currently scientifically known about the groundwater environment of certain Asian cities using the driver-pressure-state-impact-response (DPSIR) framework. The book presents in detail facts and figures on groundwater dependence, problems related to groundwater overexploitation, implementation of various policy instruments and management practices, and their results in 14 carefully selected Asian cities: Bandung (Indonesia), Bangkok (Thailand), Beijing (China), Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan), Chitwan (Nepal), Delhi (India), Dili (Timor-Leste), Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam), Hyderabad (India), Khulna (Bangladesh), Lahore (Pakistan), Seoul (South Korea), Tokyo (Japan), and Yangon (Myanmar).

The book will be helpful to a wide range of readers – local, regional, and global – working directly or indirectly in the groundwater sector. It is specifically targeted at policy makers, decision makers, researchers and research/academic institutes, implementing agencies, and governments. The book’s collection of maps, tables, and references will be invaluable to those who would otherwise have to search elsewhere for basic information on the groundwater of Asian cities.

The theoretical background of the topics discussed along with the case studies should help readers understand the similarities and differences about the status of groundwater development and use in each city. In addition, the information in the book will serve as a baseline for further research such as the mitigation of groundwater-related problems (e.g., land subsidence), impact of climate change on groundwater, and the importance of groundwater in implementing sustainable development goals in the future.

Sangam Shrestha

Vishnu Prasad Pandey

Binaya Raj Shivakoti

Shashidhar Thatikonda

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the many people who helped bring this book to fruition; to all those who provided support, talked things over, read, wrote, offered comments, allowed us to quote their remarks, and assisted in the editing, proofreading, and design.

The writing of this book was conceived as a result of feedback from a project entitled Enhancing Groundwater Management Capacity in Asian Cities through Development and Application of Groundwater Sustainability Index in the Context of Global Change, which was supported by a scientific capacity-building project under the Asia Pacific Network (APN) for Global Climate Change’s core capacity development program, CAPaBLE. We would like to thank the APN for providing the financial and technical support necessary for groundwater managers and researchers from eight cities across Asia to collaborate in this work. The cities were Hyderabad, Bandung, Vientiane, Yangon, Chitwan, Lahore, Bangkok, and Ho Chi Minh City.

Our sincere thanks go to all the contributing authors. They prepared their chapters despite their busy schedules and despite our frequent reminders. We would also like to thank all the reviewers for their valuable feedback.

Special thanks go to Smriti Malla for her tireless efforts in communicating with the contributing authors and in compiling and formatting all the chapters throughout the publication process.

Foreword

In April 2013 the Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research (APN) awarded a grant to Dr Sangam Shrestha of the Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand for a scientific capacity-building project under APN’s core capacity development program, CAPaBLE. The title of the project was Enhancing Groundwater Management Capacity in Asian Cities through Development and Application of Groundwater Sustainability Index in the Context of Global Change. The work of the project was accomplished in January 2015 through strong collaborative efforts that brought together key scholars and stakeholders from an array of reputable research institutions, government sectors, and other organizations across Asia.

Project activity focused specifically on increasing the understanding of policy makers and other relevant stakeholders and end users in eight selected cities across Asia: Hyderabad, Bandung, Vientiane, Yangon, Chitwan, Lahore, Bangkok, and Ho Chi Minh City. The specific aim of the activity was to develop the capacity of cities to assess their current situation and understanding of groundwater management. More details of specific project activity that has culminated in the writing of this book can be found by accessing the metadata link on APN’s E-Library.¹ Dr Shrestha and his team added more cities through their strong regional network to cover various subregions in Asia and came up with this excellent publication.

Taking this opportunity, APN would like to congratulate the dedication and collaborative efforts of the authors of the book under the leadership of Dr Sangam Shrestha. The book will be a valuable resource for groundwater adversaries in the scientific, decision-making, and end user communities, particularly for understanding and assessing the state of groundwater resources in the region as well as learning from the responses practiced so far.

This book will also ensure the continuity and sustainability of APN’s core mission, which is to support regional cooperation, strengthen interactions among scientists and decision makers, and improve the scientific and technical capabilities of countries in the Asia-Pacific region.

Dr Linda Anne Stevenson

Division Head

Communication and Scientific Affairs

APN Secretariat, Kobe, Japan

¹ Enhancing the Groundwater Management Capacity in Asian Cities through the Development and Application of Groundwater Sustainability Index in the Context of Global Change, APN E-Lib, accessed June 18, 2015, http://www.apn-gcr.org/resources/items/show/1901

Foreword

Groundwater is a precious but invisible resource; to assess, monitor, use, or protect something that we cannot see is not an easy task, especially in urban areas characterized by numerous (known and unknown) human impacts on groundwater environment. Additionally, groundwater specialists face the challenge of explaining the importance of the invisible resource in a vivid way. Try to imagine groundwater in (or rather under) urbanized areas; when we walk the streets of our cities do we think about the groundwater beneath? Not really, despite probably using it every day at home and at work.

Groundwater plays an important role in the sustainable development of cities, especially those cities that are growing rapidly. The urban population in these cities in 1960 accounted for about 34% of total global population; last year (2014) it reached 54% and still continues to grow. Demand for groundwater is growing accordingly. So, how can we ensure sustainable use of limited groundwater resources in this situation? How can we prevent (or at least mitigate) depletion, pollution, land subsidence, or the intrusion of sea water in coastal cities? The book in your hands gives a clear answer: only by informed management, by learning about the groundwater environment in the cities, and sharing that knowledge for reuse elsewhere.

The fast-growing cities of Asia have many common features and specifics in terms of groundwater availability and management practice. That makes reading this book even more interesting, and comparative analysis even more beneficial. Books like this one make the invisible visible.

Dr Neno Kukuric

Director

International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre (IGRAC)

Delft, The Netherlands

Foreword

The UNESCO International Hydrological Programme (IHP) is an intergovernmental program with the mandate in the United Nations system to devote all possible efforts to water sciences research, water resources management, education and capacity building. Since its inception in 1975, IHP has evolved from an internationally coordinated hydrological research program into an encompassing, holistic program to facilitate education and capacity building, and enhance water resources management and governance. IHP facilitates an interdisciplinary and integrated approach to watershed and aquifer management, which incorporates the social dimension of water resources, and promotes and develops international research in hydrological and freshwater sciences. The overarching focus of the UNESCO IHP’s Eighth Phase (2014–2021) is on Water security: Responses to local, regional, and global challenges and it comprises six thematic areas; two are respectively devoted to studies on Groundwater in a changing environment (Theme 2) and Water and human settlements of the future (Theme 4).

Considering that groundwater in aquifers ensures drinking water supplies for nearly half of the world’s population (including most of the urban areas and megacities) and that one of the major challenges of the twenty-first century is to provide access to improved water sources to cities all over the world, the IHP supports the development of up-to-date scientific knowledge on groundwater resources management in urban areas.

According to recent studies (WWDR, 2014) the rate of groundwater abstraction globally is increasing by 1–2% per year with an estimated 20% of the world’s aquifers being overexploited (WWAP, 2012). Furthermore, the world’s urban population is projected to grow to 6.3 billion by 2050 (UNDESA ST/ESA/SER.A/354) and cities are facing a range of pressures, such as climate change, population growth, and deterioration of urban infrastructures. Due to these pressures, cities of the future will experience difficulties in efficiently managing scarcer and less reliable water resources and in providing sufficient sanitation. These challenges call for comprehensive research and studies, and the implementation of new science-based methodologies and endorsement of principles for groundwater resources management and cities.

The book "Groundwater Environment in Asian Cities: Concepts, Methods and Case Studies" responds to this call with concrete examples and lessons for readers that are eager to understand urban groundwater management challenges in Asia.

The book presents up-to-date scientific knowledge on the groundwater environment in selected Asian cities that are among the ones most impacted by the global changes. The comparative analyses on policy and management responses adopted – including their strengths and weaknesses – are clearly presented along with discussions of relevant policy recommendations. For researchers and practitioners alike the book offers important insights on the inherently political nature of groundwater and cities, and can be considered a context for wide-ranging dialog between experts in the relevant disciplines. Given its strong science-policy focus, it also represents a valuable contribution to the achievements of the Eighth Phase of UNESCO-IHP.

Conscious of the need to raise political awareness globally on the urgency to improve groundwater governance and construct new paradigms for sustainable cities, I sincerely hope that this book will prompt discussions at high levels on urban groundwater challenges and opportunities and will moreover inspire new actions in this domain in Asia and beyond.

Dr Aureli Alice

Chief of Section

Groundwater System and Human Settlements

Division of Water Sciences

International Hydrological Programme (IHP)

United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO)

Paris, France

Foreword

Groundwater is an important source of water supply for many Asian cities. Rapid urban transition in Asia is largely supported by the easy and adequate access to groundwater. However, benefits of groundwater use have come at the cost of resource depletion and degradation. Urbanization, population growth, industrial development and the impacts of climate change are exerting huge pressure on groundwater resources in Asia. In many cities the resource sustainability is already threatened due to unwise development and use of groundwater and increasing pollution. Appropriate response strategies for improving the groundwater governance in Asian cities are still inadequate and needs further attention in terms of filling information gap, identifying solution through exchange of experiences and policy interventions.

The Institute of Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) has been trying to find ways to address groundwater management problems in Asia since 2004 with its vision to improve groundwater governance through research, capacity building and knowledge networking. This book is an excellent outcome of such a collaborative effort. The book by analyzing systematically the status of groundwater environment in Asian cities under the driver-pressure-state-impact-response (DPSIR) framework has generated very useful knowledgebase of groundwater in Asian cities. As a regional hub for groundwater management in the Asia-Pacific region, IGES finds this book as a very much useful reference for knowledge hub partners, groundwater managers, academic institutions, research scholars, and international organizations working in the areas of groundwater in Asia and beyond. I am highly hopeful that it induces policy responses for the sustainable management of groundwater in this region.

Hideyuki Mori

President

Institute of Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)

Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan

Acronyms and Abbreviations

ADB Asian Development Bank

APN Asia-Pacif ic Network for Global Change Research

BCM Billion cubic meters

BWSMB Bharatpur Water Supply Management Board

CBDC Central Bari Doab canal command

cfs Cubic feet per second

CGWB Central Ground Water Board

cusec Cubic meters per second

DEG Directorate of environmental geology

DGB Dili groundwater basin

DGR Department of Groundwater Resources, Thailand

DJB Delhi jal board

DONRE Department of Natural Resources and Environment

DPSIR Driver-pressure-state-impact-response

DPSWR Driver-pressure-state-welfare-response

DTW Deep tubewell

EC Electrical conductivity

ET0 Reference crop evapotranspiration

FY Fiscal year

GB Groundwater basin

GDP Gross domestic product

GHMC Gram panchayats with the Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad

GIS Geographic information system

GW Groundwater

GWRDB Groundwater Resources Development Board

ha-m hectare-meter

HCMC Ho Chi Minh City

HMWSSB Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board

HUA Hyderabad urban agglomeration

HUDA Hyderabad Urban Development Authority

IDA Industrial development area

IT Information technology

ITB Institute of Technology Bandung

IWT Indus Water Treaty

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

JNU Jawaharlal Nehru University

km Kilometers

KWSP Krishna Water Supply Project

LCP Lower Central Plain in Thailand

lpcd Liters per capita per day

lpm Liters per minute

lps Liters per second

LULC Land use/land cover

m Meters

MAF Million acre feet

masl Meters above mean sea level

mbgl Meters below ground level

MCH Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad

MCM Million cubic meters

mg/l Milligrams per liter

MGD Million gallons a day

MLD Million liters a day

MONRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

MPC Maximum permissible concentration

MPL Maximum permissible limit

MWA Metropolitan Waterworks Authority

PWA Provincial Waterworks Authority

NCT National capital territory

NERI National Environment Research Institute

NGOs Non-governmental organizations

NRW Non-revenue water

NWSC Nepal Water Supply Corporation

P Precipitation

PCE Tetrachloroethylene

ppm Parts per million

PPP Public private partnership

SMG Seoul metropolitan government

STW Shallow tubewell

SWL Static water level

Sy Specific yield

T Transmissivity

TCE Trichloroethylene

TDS Total dissolved solids

TRGWR Total renewable groundwater resources

TRWR Total renewable water resources

UN United Nations

WASID Water and soils investigation division

WHO World Health Organization

YCDC Yangon City Development Committee

Section I

Concepts and Methods

Chapter 1: Groundwater as an Environmental Issue in Asian Cities

Chapter 2: DPSIR Framework for Evaluating Groundwater Environment

Chapter 1

Groundwater as an Environmental Issue in Asian Cities

Sangam Shrestha*

Vishnu Prasad Pandey*,**

*    Water Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand

**    Department of Civil Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology and Management (AITM), Nepal

Abstract

Groundwater represents by far the largest storage of unfrozen ubiquitous high-quality fresh water on Earth. It is more widely accessible and less vulnerable to quality degradation and drought than surface water. These characteristics promote its widespread development, which can be scaled and localised according to demand, obviating the need for substantial infrastructure. Globally, groundwater is the source of one third of all freshwater withdrawals, supplying an estimated 36, 42, and 27% of water used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, respectively. In many environments, natural groundwater discharge sustains baseflow to rivers, lakes, and wetlands during periods of low or no rainfall.

Keywords

groundwater

surface water

drinking water supply

gross domestic product

1.1. Introduction

Groundwater represents by far the largest storage of unfrozen ubiquitous high-quality fresh water on Earth. It is more widely accessible and less vulnerable to quality degradation and drought than surface water (Foster and Chilton, 2003; Schwartz and Ibaraki, 2011). These characteristics promote its widespread development, which can be scaled and localised according to demand, obviating the need for substantial infrastructure (Giordano, 2009). Globally, groundwater is the source of one third of all freshwater withdrawals, supplying an estimated 36, 42, and 27% of water used for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, respectively (Döll et al., 2012). In many environments, natural groundwater discharge sustains baseflow to rivers, lakes, and wetlands during periods of low or no rainfall.

While irrigation dominates groundwater use globally and contributes to food security, the traditional role of groundwater as a basic habitation need is equally important. Around 2 billion of the rural/urban population obtain drinking water from groundwater, which accounts for around 32% of total drinking water supply (Morris et al., 2003). Today, 54% of the world’s population live in urban areas, a proportion that is expected to increase to 66% by 2050. Projections show that urbanisation, combined with overall global growth could add another 2.5 billion people to urban populations by 2050, with close to 90% of the increase concentrated in Asia and Africa. The urban population of the world has grown rapidly from 746 million in 1950 to 3.9 billion in 2014. Asia, despite its lower level of urbanisation, is home to 53% of the world’s urban population, followed by Europe with 14% and Latin America and the Caribbean with 13%. The world’s urban population is expected to surpass 6 billion by 2045 (UN, 2014). It has been estimated that about one third of Asia’s population, some 1000 to 1200 million people, and some 150 million Latin Americans are groundwater reliant (BGS-ODA-UNEP-WHO, 1996). Half of the world’s 23 megacities – cities like Bangkok, Beijing, Buenos Aires, Calcutta, Cairo, Dhaka, Jakarta, Mexico City, Lagos, Lima, London, Manila, Paris, Shanghai, Teheran, and Tianjin – as well as hundreds of smaller towns and cities are also groundwater dependent (UN, 2001).

Dependence on groundwater is most evident in Asia, especially throughout South Asia and China where irrigation dominates groundwater withdrawal. Large numbers of people living in rural areas, small towns, and cities are dependent on groundwater for domestic use; over 85% of the rural drinking water supply in India comes from groundwater, while groundwater supplies about half of the water consumed in cities like Delhi (World Bank, 2010). Major cities and municipalities in the region rely either fully or partially on groundwater as part of the water supply network, where it is also used by small-scale rural or town water supply systems. In the case of Jakarta, only 30% of water is supplied from surface sources; the remainder is harvested from groundwater (Delinom, 2012).

Industrial groundwater is usually excluded from discussions on groundwater management, partly due to its insignificance when compared with agriculture. However, the industrial sector is a major user of groundwater in urban areas (Figure 1.1). Industrial use in total groundwater abstraction is 80% in Bandung and 60% in Bangkok. There is a strong correlation between groundwater use and gross domestic product (GDP) in these cities (Figure 1.2). Along with population increase and socioeconomic development, continued growth in groundwater use is therefore expected.

Figure 1.1   Groundwater Use for Selected Cities in Asia (IGES, 2007).

Figure 1.2   Groundwater Abstraction and Correlation with City-Level GDP. Source: IGES (2007).

Despite the significance of groundwater for sustainable development, it has not always been properly managed, which has often resulted in depletion and degradation of the resource. Due to various pollution sources and climate change in urban areas, the quality and quantity of groundwater have become important issues for urban groundwater environments (Collin and Melloul, 2003). Much emphasis has been placed on groundwater resource development without giving careful attention to its management despite its strategic role in sustainable development. Uncontrolled groundwater development and indiscriminate waste disposal often accompany urban expansion, resulting in growing water scarcity and deteriorating water quality. This degradation occurs within urban areas on periurban fringes and downstream and is a contributory cause of spiralling water supply costs. The substitution of degraded urban groundwater by alternative out-of-town supplies is expensive, with unit water costs often two to three times higher than current costs (Calow et al., 1999).

To maintain the advantages groundwater has as an important resource for sustainable development and as a reserve freshwater resource for current and future generations, groundwater management should be more strategic and proactive to cope with increased demand from rapid industrialisation and urbanisation, including the potential impact of climate change. A comprehensive understanding of the groundwater environment is the very first step to formulating and implementing effective solutions to reduce degradation of the groundwater resource and maintain it as a vital resource for safe water supply in the face of competing political, societal, and economic issues, as well as limited financial resources for technological development and essential infrastructure.

Therefore, this book aims to present the state of the groundwater environment in terms of facts and figures on groundwater dependence, problems related to groundwater overexploitation, and the existence and implementation of various policy instruments, management practices, and results. Fourteen Asian cities have been selected: Bandung (Indonesia), Bangkok (Thailand), Beijing (China), Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan), Chitwan (Nepal), Delhi (India), Dili (Timor-Leste), Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam), Hyderabad (India), Khulna (Bangladesh), Lahore (Pakistan), Seoul (South Korea), Tokyo (Japan), and Yangon (Myanmar) (Figure 1.3). The driver–pressure–state–impact–response (DPSIR) framework, described in Chapter 2, is applied to evaluate the state of the groundwater environment. DPSIR is a causal framework for describing the interactions between society and the environment, and serves as a communication tool between researchers from different disciplines, policy makers, and all stakeholders involved in aquifer resources.

Figure 1.3   Locations of Selected Cities in Asia.

1.2. Case study cities

The groundwater environment in 14 cities (see Figure 1.3 for locations and Table 1.1 for key characteristics) in Asia is analysed and presented in this book. Some cities consider the city core as well as its vicinity as the study area. The largest and smallest cities by area as well as population are Beijing (area = 16,410 km², population = 21.15 million) and Dili (area = 48 km², population = 0.2 million), respectively. The study cities are scattered within a geographical window between 70–140°E and 10°S–50°N.

Table 1.1

A brief profile of the 14 case study cities (see respective chapters for details)