Graduate Research: A Guide for Students in the Sciences

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Graduate Research

A Guide for Students in the Sciences

Fourth edition

Robert V. Smith

Collaborative Brain Trust University Consulting (CBT UC), Sacramento, CA, USA

Llewellyn D. Densmore

Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA

Edward F. Lener

University Libraries, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Author Biographies

Preface

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Chapter 1: Getting Started

Abstract

Choosing graduate study in the sciences

Investigating possibilities for graduate study in the sciences

University organization

The players

Allegiances and obligations

Chapter 2: Attitudes, Commitments, and Creativity

Abstract

Attitudes and commitments

Creativity

Levels of creativity

Characteristics of auctors

Chapter 3: Making Choices

Abstract

Choices in types of research

Choosing an advisor and mentor

Adopting role models

Evaluating financial support options

Selecting programs of study

Considering interdisciplinary versus disciplinary research

Choosing a research problem

Selecting courses and using research aids

Recommending thesis and dissertation committee members

Chapter 4: Time Management

Abstract

Planning

Organization

Execution

Chapter 5: Principles of Scientific Research

Abstract

Observation

Using observations and experiences to identify problems for study

Hypotheses

Experimentation

Interpretation

Chapter 6: Ethics and the Scientist

Abstract

The ethos and methods of science

Scientists’ values

The dark side of science

Misconduct in research

Plagiarism and its avoidance

Other ethical matters of concern

Keeping the code

Chapter 7: Library and Literature Work

Abstract

Professional reading

Graduate level literature work

Using the library

Searching the literature

Library catalog

Library discovery services

Article databases

Discipline-based article databases

General searching tips

Boolean operators

Truncation and wildcards

Evaluating the literature

Organizing literature references

Keeping up with the literature

Chapter 8: Writing and Speaking Skills

Abstract

Writing skills

Elements of good writing

Approaches to good writing

Preparing notes and outlines

Write, rewrite, and rewrite

Writing tools

Texting, email and written notes, memos, and letters

Persuasiveness

Research notebooks

Reports

Research papers

Book or journal reviews

Chapter 9: Preparing Theses and Dissertations

Abstract

Planning and approaches

Characteristics of theses and dissertations

Dissertation blues

Relations with thesis and dissertation committee members

Approaches to writing

Deadlines, word processing, and binding

The defense and oral examination

Chapter 10: Presentation and Publication of Papers

Abstract

Presentation of papers at meetings

Submission of abstracts

Types of presentations

Publication of papers

Selecting journals and publishers

Preparation of manuscripts

Submitting manuscripts to publishers

Manuscript reviews

Handling proofs

Chapter 11: Research Involving Human Subjects and Animals and Biohazards and Laboratory Safety

Abstract

Human subjects research

Use of animals in research

Veterinary care and assistance

Biohazards and laboratory safety

Chapter 12: Getting Grant Support

Abstract

Historical background

Types of grants

Grant proposals and applying for grants

Preparing proposals

Applying for grants

Intellectual property ownership

Taking the long view

Chapter 13: The Graduate Researcher and Teaching

Abstract

Consider becoming a teaching assistant

Developing and refining teaching skills

Chapter 14: Getting a Job

Abstract

Planning

Interview seeking

Invitations to interview

Preparing for interviews

Interviewing

The offer

Chapter 15: Shaping a Career

Abstract

Individual development plans

Destinations

Moving into management and administration

The promise of a new position

The elements and uses of strategic planning

References

Subject Index

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Copyright

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

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Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

All illustrations of graduate students and their endeavors were created by Dusty Higgins (http://dustyhiggins.com).

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

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ISBN: 978-0-12-803749-2

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Dedication

To all graduate students who may benefit from our work, we wish you well.

Robert V. Smith

To Erika and all my former graduate students – across the many miles and in many countries.

Llewellyn D. Densmore

To my wonderful wife, Dawn, for her love and support.

Edward F. Lener

Author Biographies

Bob Smith

Robert (Bob) V. Smith is the Vice President of Collaborative Brain Trust University Consulting (CBT UC). Earlier, he served as Provost and Senior Vice President and Professor of Chemistry at Texas Tech University (TTU). Before joining TTU, he served as the Provost and Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs, and Professor of Chemistry at the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville; Vice Provost for Research and Graduate Education, and Dean of the Graduate School and Professor of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry at the University of Connecticut; Vice Provost for Research, and Dean of the Graduate School and Dean of the College of Pharmacy, and Professor of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry at Washington State University; James E. Bauerle Professor of Drug Dynamics and Director of the Drug Dynamics Institute at the University of Texas at Austin; and Associate and Assistant Professor of Medicinal Chemistry at the University of Iowa. During his years as an active researcher in the pharmaceutical sciences, Smith directed the research of 15 master’s and doctoral students and 14 postdoctoral fellows.

Smith is a Fellow of the APhA Academy of Pharmaceutical Research and Sciences, and a Fellow of the American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists. He is the author, coauthor, or editor of 335 articles and 13 books (counting different editions), including the solo-authored works: The Elements of Great Speechmaking: Adding Drama & Intrigue (2004), Pedestals, Parapets & Pits: The Joys, Challenges & Failures of Professional Life (2005), Where You Stand is Where You Sit: An Academic Administrator’s Handbook (2006), and The Way of Oz: A Guide to Wisdom, Heart & Courage (2012).

Smith earned Master’s and PhD degrees (Pharmaceutical Chemistry) from the University of Michigan. His bachelor’s degree (Pharmaceutical Sciences) was awarded, cum laude, from St. John’s University in New York.

Lou Densmore

Llewellyn (Lou) D. Densmore is Professor and Graduate Advisor in the Department of Biological Sciences at Texas Tech University (TTU).

Densmore was appointed Chair of Biological Sciences at TTU in 2009 and served in that role until August 2015. Prior to that, he had served as an Associate Chair for 6 years. An Assistant Professor from 1985 to 1991, he was tenured in 1992, and served as an Associate Professor until 2005, when he was named Professor. Between 2008 and 2013, he served as the Program Director of the TTU/Howard Hughes Medical Institute Science Education Program and now serves as the Director of the Center for the Integration of STEM Education and Research (CISER). Densmore has graduated 17 PhD students and 11 MS students during his 30 years at TTU; he currently supervises two PhD students and two MS students.

Densmore is a member of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Crocodile Specialist Group. His research on the molecular systematics, population genetics, and conservation biology of lower vertebrates, has resulted in some 75 peer-reviewed publications. Densmore’s research has been supported as a Principal Investigator by the National Science Foundation, the National Geographic Society, the State of Texas Advanced Research Program, and the Panamanian government (SENACYT).

Densmore earned his Bachelors’ and Masters’ degrees in Biology at the University of Houston, and his PhD degree in Biochemistry at the Louisiana State University Medical Center, in 1981. Following a postdoctoral post at the University of Michigan, he came to TTU in 1985, where he has spent his entire career. He is a highly regarded and awarded teacher and has been a leader at TTU in the area of undergraduate research.

Ed Lener

Edward (Ed) F. Lener is Associate Professor in the University Libraries at Virginia Tech. He serves as Associate Director for Collection Management, and College Librarian for the Sciences. In this capacity, Lener helps oversee a collection budget of over $9 million annually, much of that is devoted to supporting resources in STEM disciplines, including engineering, agriculture, and the sciences. He continues to act as College Librarian for the Sciences, a position he has held since 1996. As the College Librarian, he provides research and teaching support for several PhD-level departments, including chemistry, geosciences, and physics. Lener was the recipient of the 2011 Library Recognition Award for faculty.

For more than 10 years, Lener has team taught a 4000-level Survey of Chemical Literature course at Virginia Tech that focuses on effective searching of the scientific literature. He was also involved in the launch of an online 5000-level Library Research Skills course that is now offered through the graduate school. Lener coteaches the Engineering and Physical Sciences section of this course each year.

Lener has written numerous articles and book chapters in library-related publications. He serves as a section editor for both the Guide to Reference and Magazines for Libraries. He is professionally active within the Science and Technology Section of the Association of College and Research Libraries. Lener earned his Master of Library Science degree from the State University of New York at Albany (now University at Albany), an MS in Geological Sciences, and a BS in Geology, both from Virginia Tech.

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Preface

In a scientific laboratory, nothing startling which calls for an obvious response occurs on its own. Nature is passive and silent. Scientists have to start things up for themselves.

– June Goodfield (1927–), British author, historian, and philosopher An Imagined World: A Story of Scientific Discovery, 1981

This book and its three predecessor editions have been in print for 31 years. Much has happened in the world of science and scientific research, in the interim. The lives of scientific researchers have changed dramatically, from the instruments and computer tools at researchers’ fingertips to the extraordinary influence of the Internet in learning and communication, to our understanding of the cognitive elements of learning and creativity. This fourth edition attempts to inform the current science graduate researcher about the enhanced environment we live in, for the exploration of the natural world and its evolutionary implications – all in a context of personal and professional development, career goals, and initiatives to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century. Thus, for example, we have added new chapters on teaching, and shaping careers. Besides the totally new material, we have updated every chapter, especially adding insights and references to the many Internet-based electronic resources, concentrating especially on those materials that are available free of charge (e.g., pdf files available from the National Academies Press).

While we have done much that is new in this edition, there are a couple of core elements that remain the same: (1) direct help to prospective and matriculated graduate students in the sciences and (2) assistance to graduate advisors and mentors who wish to offer new graduate students guidance to successful and productive graduate work. Consider some brief elaboration on these two points.

A worrisome paradox lurks in graduate education. At this level, more than any other, the student must develop independence and creativity. Consequently, advisors may adopt a laissez-faire attitude toward the student’s work. This can cause the student to struggle unnecessarily. Guidance is needed to excel in research and professional development efforts, at the graduate level.

The problems of developing and improving research skills and preparing for professional careers are addressed in this book. It is a step-by-step guide for students in the life, natural, physical, and social-behavioral sciences. It can also benefit faculty or administrators who wish to organize their thinking on graduate education. The book is designed for self-instruction. It may also serve as a reference for an introductory research methods course, or a departmental seminar. In fact, a search of the Internet reveals that earlier editions of Graduate Research have been used in graduate seminars and orientation offerings in universities around the world. The book was also conceived as a work that might be offered by an advisor or mentor to a beginning graduate student, as an introductory reading, accompanied by the suggestion, after you have read this book, we should discuss how its guidelines may help you progress in our program.

The book is succinct, and can be read quickly, but hints are offered that can be helpful for years. The tips given have been refined through the experiences of noted scientists and educators. The ideas will work, if given a try.

We have advised graduate students as professors, director of an interdisciplinary research institute, and chair of a biological sciences department; also as academic dean, graduate school dean, and provost at six research universities; as associate director for collection management, and college librarian for the sciences. During our collective careers, we have directed research and published papers with our graduate students and colleagues in various areas, including analytical chemistry, biochemistry, microbiology, organic chemistry, pharmacological and toxicological sciences, population genetics and systematics, and information and library science. We understand the difficulties graduate students experience in research and graduate education. Problems that stem from a lack of knowledge in coursework, and in specific research methods, as in statistics or computer sciences, are beyond the scope of this book. Rather, impediments involving approaches, perceptions, and self-initiating efforts are its concerns.

The book is developed in chronological fashion, for the beginning graduate student. Chapter 1 contains an orientation to graduate research departments, and is followed by chapters on commitments and creativity, making choices (e.g., research problems and an advisor), and managing time. These chapters are followed by ones on the principles of scientific research and ethics in science. Subsequent chapters are devoted to library and literature work, writing and speaking skills, preparing theses and dissertations, and presenting and publishing papers. The book continues with chapters on research with human subjects, animals, biohazards, and chemical safety; also, on writing and applying for grants. The concluding chapters provide insights on teaching, getting a job in higher education, government, or industry, and shaping a career.

Beginning graduate students can use this book throughout their academic careers. More advanced students may refine their skills through its use. New professorial graduate advisors and mentors will find the book useful in organizing their thinking about graduate research, and may use the work as a reference in seminars, workshops, and orientation courses developed around graduate research and responsible conduct of research. In short, this guide should make research a more productive, rewarding, and intriguing experience.

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Acknowledgments

Many people helped make this book possible. Some people stimulated ideas. Others helped in the refinement of ideas and concepts. Still others were the sources of encouragement. Most have been colleagues or students at Louisiana State and Texas Tech Universities; Virginia Tech; the Universities of Arkansas (Fayetteville), Connecticut, Michigan, Iowa, Texas at Austin, and Washington; and Washington State University. We are grateful to many individuals for their wisdom and kindness, and especially, in this edition, Mary Preap (Associate Acquisitions Editor, Plant Science/Professional & Career Development, Academic Press/Elsevier) for her unstinting support and encouragement throughout the project. Five anonymous reviewers based in academic institutions in the United States and abroad assessed the manuscript for this edition. They overwhelmingly recommended that we expand our treatment related to study and research in international settings. With their and Ms Preap’s encouragement, we added relevant material to several chapters in this new edition, and we thank the reviewers and Ms Preap for their recommendations. With admiration, we also acknowledge Dusty Higgins, whose creative graphics enliven and enrich the text. Special thanks are also accorded to the former students who worked with us to bring their stories of doctoral studies and work abroad, and special contributions to pedagogy for teaching assistants, including Ben and Courtney Hood (doctoral study at the University of St Andrews, United Kingdom), Michael Berumen (doctoral study at James Cook University in Australia, and professorial work at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, or KAUST, in Saudi Arabia), Lisa Bentley (postdoctoral studies at the University of Oxford, United Kingdom), and Stephanie Lockwood (pedagogy instruction at Texas Tech University).

Finally, we wish to acknowledge our families, including Dr Erika Densmore and Dr Dawn M. Wong, who understood the necessity of our devoting hundreds of weekend and evening hours to the preparation of this extensively revised edition.

Robert V. Smith

Llewellyn D. Densmore

Edward F. Lener

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Introduction

What research universities value most [is] the active engagement between graduate faculty members and graduate students at the frontiers of traditional fields, where new discoveries, new perspectives, new syntheses fundamentally reorder the state of knowledge.

– John Haughton D’Arms (1934–2002), Gerald F. Else Professor of Humanities and Classic Studies, Dean of the Graduate School, and Vice Provost for Academic Affairs, University of Michigan, and President, American Council of Learned Societies

Research and graduate education are linked inextricably. Thus, it is not surprising that the nation’s great graduate schools are located at research universities where exceptional faculty and graduate students discover and develop new knowledge.

The recruitment of outstanding graduate students is the goal of all research universities. In reciprocal fashion, prospective graduate students should seek programs that will help them become competitive in their chosen fields of study. The prospective student can do much to insure a suitable match. The basis for the match should include personal interests, the quality of prospective faculty advisors and programs, the levels of financial support, and quality of life in and around the institutions.

Personal interests will influence the choice of a field of study; however, prospective graduate students should realize that graduate research and scholarship are not always represented in undergraduate courses or programs. For example, one rarely sees undergraduate courses in chemical physics, pharmacology, or toxicology – all of which are recognized doctoral areas of study.

Undergraduate advisors, faculty, and staff at a graduate school of one’s alma mater are good sources for information on graduate programs. Additionally, guides are available through Peterson Graduate Bound [1] and the National Academies Press [2,3] that provide general information on graduate programs in the United States. Once a field of study is chosen, faculty, department chairpersons, and deans at a home institution can be contacted for opinions and evaluations. Faculty, chairpersons, and deans may also know individuals who graduated from programs of interest, or alumni from an institution who reside in your area.

Following local inquiries, contacts should be made with potentially desirable programs. For prospective graduate students who are currently undergraduates, the following timetable may be useful in planning the inquiry, application and evaluation steps:

Junior Year

• Determine programs and universities of interest.

• Register for Graduate Record Exam (GRE; quantitative, verbal, and analytical exams; in some instances, subject tests).

• Investigate national scholarships/fellowships (see Chapter 3).

Summer between Junior and Senior Years

• Take GRE exam(s).

• Solicit or seek admission materials on institutional websites.

• Visit institutions.

• Write application essay, including motivation and commitments, expectations, experience, background, goals, reasons for pursuing graduate education, and personal uniqueness; obtain critiques of essay.

• Check application deadlines and register for national application or data assembly service.

Senior Year

• Obtain letters of recommendation, or seek their electronic submittal by references.

• Take or retake the GRE, if deemed necessary.

• Send in applications (preferably 10–12 months in advance of starting graduate work, or as required).

• Continue visits to institutions.

• Evaluate offers of admission, and assistantship or fellowship support (see Chapter 3).

Admission criteria vary but, generally, graduate schools and graduate program faculty look for a minimum B average (preferably >3.0 GPA on a 4.0 scale) in upper division work (typically the last 60 semester hours, or 90 quarter hours), high performance on the GRE (e.g., preferably scores on the quantitative and verbal portions of the exam that place you in the top 25 percentile nationally, and a score of 3.5 or better on the written exam), favorable letters of recommendation, and evidence of motivation and commitment to graduate study in a chosen area. These factors may be evaluated, in part, through interview trips, sponsored by graduate programs that provide travel support as a part of their recruitment efforts. The opportunity to interview is valuable, especially if it includes interactions with prospective advisors, and students currently in a program.

Acceptance of admission into a graduate program should offer exciting challenges and opportunities to pursue research at the forefront of knowledge. The challenges and opportunities will require a good start, which is considered in the chapter that follows.

References

[1] Peterson’s Graduate School Bound. Princeton, NJ: Peterson’s, http://www.petersons.com/graduate-schools.aspx; 2013 [accessed 16.02.2013].

[2] A Data-Based Assessment of Research-Doctorate Programs in the United States. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, http://www.nap.edu/rdp/; 2010 [accessed 16.02.2013].

[3] Research-Doctorate Programs in the Biomedical Sciences: Selected Findings from the NRC Assessment. In: Lorden JF, Kuh CV, Voytuk JA, editors. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13213; 2011 [accessed 16.02.2013].

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Chapter 1

Getting Started

Robert V. Smith*

Llewellyn D. Densmore†

Edward F. Lener**

*    Collaborative Brain Trust University Consulting (CBT UC), Sacramento, CA, USA

†    Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA

**    University Libraries, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA

Abstract

Entering graduate school marks a turning point in many lives. Graduate education is designed for individual development and growth. With commitment, hard work, and some guidance, students become independent scholars and researchers. For many, the choice of attending graduate school begins with independent exploration as a baccalaureate student, including opportunities to engage in undergraduate research. Choosing a particular graduate program is also important and there is value in putting choices into a global perspective. Guidance is available for choosing graduate institutions and programs, including programs outside the United States. For illustrative purposes short biographical sketches have been included for three students who studied in doctoral programs in Australia and the United Kingdom. Assuming acceptance and enrollment into a program nationally or abroad, insight is provided on who’s who and what’s what in graduate research units and universities.

Keywords

choice

institution

location

program

settling-in

Outline

Choosing Graduate Study in the Sciences 2

Investigating Possibilities for Graduate Study in the Sciences 3

University Organization 15

The Players 17

Allegiances and Obligations 19

Exultation is the going

Of an inland soul to sea,

Past the houses – past the headlands –

Into deep Eternity –

Bred as we, among the mountains,

Can the sailor understand

The divine intoxication

Of the first league out from land?

– Emily Dickinson (1830–1886), American poet and writer Part Four: Time and Eternity VII, 1924

Entering graduate school marks a turning point in many lives. Graduate education is designed for individual development and growth. With commitment, hard work, and some guidance, students become independent scholars and researchers. For many, the choice of attending graduate school begins with independent exploration as a baccalaureate student, including opportunities to engage in undergraduate research. Choosing a particular graduate program is also important. After acceptance and enrollment, you will want to know who’s who and what’s what in a graduate research unit and university.

Choosing graduate study in the sciences

Undergraduate study in the sciences, particularly for science majors, should lead to an understanding that developing research expertise will become increasingly critical to twenty-first century professionals. For members of earlier generations, research was not considered an essential part of undergraduate curricula. This is not currently the case at many top-tier research universities as well as smaller institutions that have developed a variety of undergraduate research structures as part of recruitment, retention, and graduation strategies.

During the past two decades, many if not all US research universities have developed infrastructure and other resources to enhance undergraduate research opportunities across disciplines. Among the student benefits of these commitments are: (1) increased awareness, confidence, and understanding; (2) persistence and retention toward graduation; (3) enhanced educational experiences; (4) enlarged expectations of earning advanced degrees (especially PhDs), particularly in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), and social and economic sciences fields; (5) the development of general academic skills that are transferable across content areas; and (6) evidence that equivalent benefits exist across different genders and ethnic backgrounds [1,2]. In a practical sense, let’s explore briefly how undergraduate research plays out in a typical college or university.

The inspiration to consider pursuing undergraduate research may originate from a class or classes with an effective teacher. If he or she is active in research (as indicated by perusal of their website), you could ask if there might be an opportunity to join her or his group. The involvement will frequently be through an independent study or a formal undergraduate research course, or through an arrangement where you might receive a stipend for working a nominal number of hours per week. Before signing up you should seek out students (including graduate students) who may have worked previously with this professor. Determine if undergraduates are engaged meaningfully in the professor’s research and are integral parts of her or his research group.

Mark Batzer, a well established biological sciences professor at Louisiana State University, engages commonly undergraduates in his research group, as evidenced on his website [3]. When you hear him give a talk, he remarks pointedly about contributions of undergraduates to research pursued through his larger research group. Indeed, we have even heard him speak about how undergraduates have appeared as first authors on prominent publications. Professor Batzer is clearly the type of mentor that undergraduates should seek out.

Besides opportunities for research as a regular part of an undergraduate science curriculum, universities frequently have special summer undergraduate research programs, many of which may be funded through grants. The National Science Foundation (NSF) Research Experience Undergraduate (REU) program, for example, is well known for offering opportunities to students not only at home institutions but also from around the country. Prospective undergraduate researchers in fields from astronomical sciences to physics to social, behavioral, and economic sciences can query a specific NSF site [4] to determine institutions and programs where they may apply for individual REU awards. Besides NSF, a number of other agencies – public and private (e.g., Howard Hughes Medical Institute) – support undergraduate research, and interested students can find out more about such awards from their institution’s sponsored research office.

Investigating possibilities for graduate study in the sciences

Whatever efforts may have influenced your choice to pursue graduate study in the sciences, it will be helpful to have a plan for identifying the best options for application and possible matriculation. This plan can be built on the following principles, resources, and actions:

• Many of North America’s best research universities belong to the Association of American Universities (AAU), including 62 private and public institutions, and the Association of Public and Land-grant Universities (APLU), with its 234 member institutions in 50 states, the District of Columbia, and US territories.

• Since graduate education is stressed markedly at research universities, a perusal of the AAU [5] and APLU [6] institutional lists will provide a first estimation of potential possibilities.

• Great research universities also stress doctoral education, and the National Research Council (NRC) survey of doctoral programs [7] can be used to determine those programs that are ranked topmost among the 5000 programs evaluated within 62 fields spread across 221 institutions.

• Additional information on graduate program qualities, including master’s programs, is available through a graduate school guide offered by phds.org [8].

• With a further refined list of program possibilities in hand, seek advice from favorite professors and their department chairs or heads. You can anticipate that some advisors may steer you to their alma maters, but most will provide open-minded advice on the best choices in disciplinary and interdisciplinary programs.

• All the while, you can be doing Internet work on your own. Great graduate programs are noted for excellent faculty, competitive support for students (tuition and benefits, stipends and supportive resources such as travel), coherent and robust curricula, and reputations for outstanding research. It is important to stress at this juncture that graduate students, particularly doctoral students, infrequently pay full tuition and fees, and often qualify for stipend and salary support through fellowships and assistantships, respectively. These facts set graduate education apart from postgraduate professional education (e.g., medical and dental schools) where tuition, fees, and stipend support are rarely part of an admission package. Here again, faculty advisors and other members of the faculty and administration associated with your study major will be good resources for information and suggestions. Don’t be afraid to ask. Faculty members generally love to have conversations about the comparative characteristics, strengths, and advantages of academic units in their fields. And, most students’ mentors are keen to see underrepresented students entertain plans for graduate work in the sciences. Indeed, these faculty members will help in guiding students to sources of special support, as we note in Chapter 3.

While we anticipate that most of our readers would be thinking of graduate study in the United States, we have known US baccalaureate graduates who have contemplated and enrolled ultimately in programs abroad, including those in Canada and other international destinations. Thus,