A Global Perspective on Private Higher Education

A Global Perspective on Private Higher Education

Editors

Mahsood Shah

Chenicheri Sid Nair

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Editors’ biography

Contributors’ biography

Preface

1. The issue of contractible quality, quality assurance, and information asymmetries in higher education

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Noncontractible quality and information imperfections

1.3. Educational providers

1.4. Conclusion

2. What role for private higher education in Europe? Reflecting about current patterns and future prospects

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Private higher education in Europe—how did we get here?

2.3. An overview of the private sector in European HE in the last 15 years

2.4. Some stylized facts on private higher education in Europe

2.5. Concluding remarks

3. Private higher education in Italy

3.1. Trends in the size of private higher education

3.2. The main legal features of private and public universities

3.3. The academics in the private and public sector

3.4. Tuition fees

3.5. The internal differentiation in the private sector

3.6. The social make-up of public and private universities

3.7. The occupational outcomes of graduates from private and public universities

3.8. The impact of graduating from a private university on labor market returns

3.9. Conclusions

Appendix: data description

4. From growth to decline? Demand-absorbing private higher education when demand is over

4.1. Introduction: European and global growth patterns in private higher education

4.2. The changing public–private dynamics

4.3. From the expanding privatized to the contracting publicly funded university

4.4. Higher education expansion and projections for the future: educational contraction and private higher education

4.5. Conclusion

5. Privately funded higher education providers in the UK: The changing dynamic of the higher education sector

5.1. Introduction

5.2. The changing landscape of higher education in the United Kingdom

5.3. Context for development of privately funded (or alternative) providers

5.4. Mapping privately funded providers in the UK

5.5. Some specific features of privately funded providers and provision in the UK

5.6. Unbundling and varied public–private partnerships

5.7. Students and privately funded providers

5.8. Governance arrangements among privately funded providers

5.9. Impact of privately funded providers on the UK higher education sector?

5.10. Conclusions

6. The evolution of a new hybrid organizational form in Chinese higher education: An institutionalist analysis

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Theoretical framework and method

6.3. Deinstitutionalization of the public monopoly in Chinese higher education

6.4. The process of institutionalization of the new hybrid organizational form

6.5. Growing fast in uncertainty

6.6. Regulation and legitimacy

6.7. Conflicts and contesting norms and cultures

6.8. Solutions to incompatibility and new norms in the making

6.9. Conclusions

7. A great leap forward: Changes and challenges for private higher education in Hong Kong

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Rationales for privatization of higher education

7.3. The pathways to privatization

7.4. Challenges ahead

7.5. Conclusion

8. Private higher education institutions in Malaysia

8.1. Preamble: the role of private higher education institutions (HEIs): historical background

8.2. Mindsets of the ruling elites

8.3. First mindset change

8.4. Vision 2020 and national framework of development

8.5. ICT literate knowledge society and the knowledge economy

8.6. The multimedia Super Corridor and the digital era

8.7. Multimedia Super Corridor and biotechnology initiatives

8.8. Education development plan 2001–10: generating educational excellence through collaborative planning

8.9. Private sector schools and private sector colleges and universities

8.10. Edupreneurs and private universities

8.11. Niches of knowledge creation in Malaysian universities COEs

8.12. The vision and mission of the ministry of higher education (MOHE)

8.13. Leading stakeholders of private university colleges and universities

8.14. The second mindset change

8.15. The review of curriculum

8.16. Leadership and collaboration between public universities and private universities

8.17. Improving the quality of higher education

8.18. Learning outcomes in the MQF

8.19. The quality assurance agenda

8.20. SETARA: brief historical background

8.21. Objective

8.22. Framework and instrument design

8.23. The framework of the instrument

8.24. Rationale for the indicators in the instrument

8.25. The National Accreditation Council and the Malaysian Qualifications Agency

8.26. The way forward

8.27. The educational goals

8.28. Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015–25 (higher education)

8.29. Conclusion

8.30. Closure: food for thought?

9. Privatization in higher education in India: A reflection of issues

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Status of universities and government initiatives

9.3. Private universities in India: need of the hour

9.4. Challenges and suggestions for the way forward

9.5. National Assessment and Accreditation Council

9.6. Conclusion

10. Policy and regulation of Australian private higher education

10.1. Identifying the private in Australia’s private higher education

10.2. Understanding the regulatory regime for Australian private higher education providers

10.3. The first regulatory arrangements for private higher education

10.4. States and centralized committees of control

10.5. Changes to the regulatory regime

10.6. Further developments in private higher education policy

10.7. Conclusion

10.8. A last word: further deregulation of higher education proposed

11. Private higher education and graduate employability in Saudi Arabia

11.1. Introduction

11.2. Private higher education in Saudi Arabia

11.3. Higher education and the labor market

11.4. Subjects offered

11.5. The use of English language for instruction

11.6. Practical learning, assessment, and structured work experience

11.7. Structured work experience (internship)

11.8. Career center

11.9. Extracurricular activities

11.10. Conclusion

12. The obstacles and challenges of private education in the Sultanate of Oman

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Background

12.3. History of higher education in Oman

12.4. Privatization of education

12.5. Privatization of higher education in the Sultanate of Oman

12.6. Development

12.7. Modes of delivery and programs offered

12.8. Governmental higher education institutions

12.9. Obstacles and challenges

12.10. Conclusion

13. The rise of private higher education in Kurdistan

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Factors contributing to the sharp increase in private higher education

13.3. Distinguishing features of private higher educations

13.4. Admissions criteria and student selection at private universities

13.5. Why do students study at private universities?

13.6. Staff–student ratio and quality of academic staff

13.7. Gender inequity

13.8. Regional inequity

13.9. Economic inequity

13.10. The status of private universities before 2009

13.11. Conclusion

14. The new state of private universities in Latin America

14.1. The expansive stage of private higher education in Latin America (1980–2000)

14.2. The new stage of private education in Latin America (2000–10)

14.3. Conclusions

15. Trends in private higher education: The case of Kenya

15.1. Introduction

15.2. Brief history of higher education in Kenya

15.3. Growth of private higher education in Kenya

15.4. University accreditation in Kenya

15.5. Way forward

15.6. Conclusion

16. Private universities in Nigeria: Prevalence, course offerings, cost, and manpower development

16.1. Introduction

16.2. Structural adjustment program

16.3. Frequent strikes in and closure of federal universities

16.4. The growing demand for university education

16.5. It is common practice all over the world

16.6. Purpose of the study

16.7. Method of investigation

16.8. Data analysis

16.9. Faculty research, productivity, and the presence of journals edited from the university

16.10. Discussion

16.11. Access

16.12. Cost: tuition and fees

16.13. Accreditation

16.14. Course offerings/academic areas of study

16.15. Faculty qualification/training and research

16.16. Conclusion

17. Quality and accreditation of private higher education in Ghana

17.1. Introduction

17.2. Ghana as a case study

17.3. Challenges

17.4. Conclusion

18. The gainful employment rule and for-profit higher education in the United States

18.1. Introduction

18.2. Gainful employment and access to postsecondary education

18.3. Policies and events leading to the proposed rule

18.4. Purpose and formal provisions of gainful employment

18.5. Defining gainful employment

18.6. Assessing gainful employment

18.7. Institutional reactions to the gainful employment rule

18.8. Policy process

18.9. Conclusion

19. Higher education: The needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few

19.1. Introduction

19.2. Impact of globalization and internationalization on PHE

19.3. National socioeconomic needs and priorities, job churning and workforce preparation demands as drivers supporting the expansion of PHE

19.4. Issues impacting PHE: credibility (legitimacy), quality, quality assurance, and regulatory compliance

19.5. Capacities and techniques of technology-enhanced learning (TEL) and PHE: impact and challenge

19.6. Perceived value held by students and other stakeholders

19.7. A counter perspective to PHE growth

19.8. Where to from here?

19.9. Concluding remarks

Index

Copyright

Chandos Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier

50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, UK

Copyright © 2016 Mahsood Shah and Chenicheri Sid Nair. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-0-08-100872-0 (print)

ISBN: 978-0-08-100898-0 (online)

For information on all Chandos Publishing publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/

Publisher: Glyn Jones

Acquisition Editor: George Knott

Editorial Project Manager: Harriet Clayton

Production Project Manager: Poulouse Joseph

Designer: Greg Harris

Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals

Editors’ biography

Mahsood Shah is an Associate Professor and Deputy Dean (Learning and Teaching) with School of Business and Law at Central Queensland University (CQU), Australia. In this role, Mahsood is responsible for enhancing the academic quality and standard of programs. Mahsood is also responsible for learning and teaching strategy, governance, effective implementation of policies, and enhancement of academic programs across all campuses. In providing leadership for learning and teaching, Mahsood works with key academic leaders across all campuses to improve learning and teaching outcomes of courses delivered in various modes, including face-to-face and online. At CQU, he provides leadership in national and international accreditation of academic programs. Mahsood is also an active researcher. His areas of research strength include quality in higher education, measurement and enhancement of student experience, student retention and attrition, student engagement in quality assurance, international higher education, widening participation, and private higher education. Prior to joining CQU, Mahsood has led research at school level at the University of Newcastle, Australia. Mahsood has also led strategic planning and quality assurance in three other Australian universities.

Apart from working in universities, Mahsood has worked closely with more than 15 private for-profit higher education providers on projects related to quality assurance, compliance, accreditation, and enhancement of learning and teaching. Mahsood has significant experience in external quality assurance. He is a Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) expert and also an auditor with various international external quality agencies.

Mahsood is the founding editor of the journal International Studies in Widening Participation.

Chenicheri Sid Nair is Professor of Higher Education Development at the University of Western Australia. His current role is in the area of quality of teaching and learning. Prior to this, he was Interim Director and Quality Advisor (Evaluations and Research) at the Center for Higher Education Quality (CHEQ) at Monash University, Australia. In this role, he headed the evaluation unit at Monash University, where he restructured the university’s evaluation framework. The approach to evaluation at Monash has been noted in the first round of Australian Universities Quality Agency (AUQA) audits and is part of the good practice database.

His research work lies in the areas of quality in the Australian higher education system, classroom and school environments, and the implementation of improvements from stakeholder feedback. Recent book publications include Leadership and Management of Quality in Higher Education and Student Feedback: The Cornerstone to an Effective Quality Assurance System in Higher Education. He has extensive lecturing experience in the applied sciences in Canada, Singapore, and Australia. He is an international consultant in quality and evaluations in higher education.

Contributors’ biography

Ahmad Bayiz Ahmad is a PhD candidate in the school of Economics and Management at Beihang University, Beijing, China. Before moving to China, he worked as an academic at a private university in Kurdistan. Ahmad holds an MBA (with distinction) from the University of Canberra, 2013; Grad. Cert. in Accounting from the University of South Australia, 2012; and B.Sc. in Business Management (1st class honors) from the University of Kurdistan Hewler, Kurdistan Region of Iraq. He has been awarded a number of honors and scholarships both in Kurdistan and abroad for his academic excellence, worth more than $180,000 USD. His research interests include quality assurance, private higher education, higher education management, and change management.

Claire Field has worked in the Australian tertiary education sector for two decades, with specialist expertise in vocational education and training, international education, and private higher education. Claire established Claire Field and Associates in August 2014 to provide advice and strategic support to key stakeholders in the tertiary education sector (including both governments and providers).

Prior to forming her consultancy practice, Claire worked in different types of educational institutions, including a national not-for-profit provider and a large government technical and further education provider. Her most recent role was as the Chief Executive of the Australian Council of Private Education and Training (ACPET), representing more than 1000 private higher education and vocational education and training providers. She has held senior positions in state and commonwealth government agencies with responsibility for educational policy, planning, performance review, and regulatory reform.

Claire holds a research Masters of Education (University of Queensland) and an Executive Masters of Public Administration, through the Australia and New Zealand School of Government (University of Sydney).

Claudio Rama is a specialist of higher education with focus on Latin America. He is an economist, Master in Educational Management, Doctor of Education (UNESR), and Doctor of Laws (UBA). He has conducted postdoctoral research at three universities (UNICAMP, UFF, and UNESR). He was Director of the UNESCO International Institute for Higher Education in Latin America and the Caribbean (IESALC). In Uruguay, he was Director of the National Book Institute, Director of the National Television System, and Vice President of the Board of the National Service of Broadcasting and Entertainment (SODRE). Actually, he is Dean of the Faculty of Business at the University of Enterprise (UDE), researcher at the National Research System, and Director of the Center for Virtual Education in Latin America and the Caribbean (Virtual Educa—Organization of American States). He is a regular teacher of several Masters and PhD programs in the region and a regular consultant in many universities, academic institutions, and international organizations. He has published 22 books and several essays, and has been honored as doctor honor is by three universities in the region.

Claudia Traini is a doctoral candidate at the Bamberg Graduate School of Social Sciences (BAGSS). She holds an MA and BA in Sociology, both from the University of Milano Bicocca. Her current work examines the effect of stratification of education systems on patterns of social inequality.

Dato’ Dr. Ibrahim Ahmad Bajunid is Deputy Vice Chancellor of INTI-Laureate International Universities and Professor of Management, Education, and the Social Sciences. Dr. Ibrahim was Director of the Regional Center for Educational Planning, United Arab Emirates, Professor of Management, Leadership and Policy Studies and the Founding Dean, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at University Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR), and former Director of Institut Aminuddin Baki (IAB), The National Institute of Educational Management and Leadership. He is Distinguished Associate of the Institute of Educational Leadership, and Consultant, Center for Civilizational Dialogue, University of Malaya. For more than three decades, he has been the key figure in the field of educational management and leadership in Malaysia. He has supervised masters and doctoral degree students and has written several hundred academic and general articles.

Fernando F. Padró is the Acting Director of Learning and Teaching and Senior Lecturer (Quality) at the University of Southern Queensland. He researches quality assurance in higher education. He currently leads the Queensland Promoting Excellence Network dedicated to improving learning and teaching at universities in the State, editor in-chief of a 25-volume handbook series on developing and administering universities, and the American Society for Quality (ASQ) Education Division Past-Chair. He was Editor of ASQ’s Education Division peer-reviewed e-journal Quality Approaches in Higher Education, NASPA Faculty Fellow, and International Network of Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education’s Best Practice Committee member.

Ganesh Anant Hegde, Assistant Adviser, NAAC Bangalore, is an eminent personality who has committed himself to the realms of higher education. He holds a doctorate degree in mass communication and journalism from the University of Mysore. He is an eminent educationist with a strong heritage of professional expertise. He served as the publication executive in the Department of Science and Technology, Vigyan Prasar, Govt. of India, New Delhi. In 1996, he joined the NAAC and contributed to the council with unflinching devotion. He has coordinated many higher educational institutions for assessment and conducted several workshops for faculty for quality enhancement. His work of interest includes institutionalizing the internal quality assurance system in higher education institutions in India.

James S. Etim is a Professor of Education at Winston Salem State University. He taught at the University of Jos, Nigeria (1980–1989) and was head of the Department of Curriculum Studies at that university from August 1984–August 1986. He has been to Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria, on a Fulbright Senior Specialist Award (May–June 2010), which gave him the opportunity to visit Joseph Ayo Babalola University, a private university. He recently traveled to Nigeria (May–June 2014), where he completed research on gender and education in Nigeria. He is the editor of the journal, Review of Higher Education in Africa.

Jane Irungu, born and raised in Kenya, has been an educator and an advocate for student success for over 25  years. She has taught and has been an administrator both in the Kenyan and the US education systems. Before joining the University of Oregon (UO) in 2010, Jane worked at the University of Kansas (KU) for 13  years. She served as the Associate Director of the Kansas African Studies Center, a national resource center funded by the US federal government. During her tenure at KU, she held positions in the Office of International Programs as the Director of the Global Awareness Program (GAP) and Lecturer in Kiswahili and Outreach Coordinator in the African and African American Department. She received her B.Ed. from Kenyatta University in Nairobi, Kenya, and her M.S.Ed. and PhD in Higher Education Administration and Policy Studies from KU. Currently, she is Director at the Center for Multicultural Academic Excellence at UO.

Jian Liu is an associate professor in the Graduate School of Education in Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Her research interests include the development of graduate students’ professional skills, college students’ civic engagement, institutional impact, assessment of student learning in higher education, and policy studies. She received her PhD in higher education and comparative and international education from the University of Toronto.

Linda Kimencu currently works as a lecturer at Kenyatta University in Nairobi, Kenya. She received her doctorate in higher education administration from West Virginia University in the US. She has an MA in Business Administration (Marketing) from the University of Nairobi and a BA (Accounting) from Kenya Methodist University. Before joining Kenyatta University, she worked at Kenya Methodist University, where she was the lead person in developing the PhD curriculum in Leadership and Management. Linda is passionate about improving the quality in higher education through developing models of assessment and using the available technology to enhance the quality of education offered in higher education institutions. While in graduate school at West Virginia University, Linda worked as an assessment coordinator, using the Live-Text assessment platform, to extend faculty use of technology in classroom assessment. She anticipates that the same model can be replicated in the Kenyan higher education institutions.

Linda Tsevi holds a PhD in Educational Administration and Policy Studies from the State University of New York at Albany. Her research interests include quality assurance and accreditation in private higher education, partnerships in higher education and cross-border higher education.

Lindsey B. Jakiel, Ed.M., is a doctoral candidate in Education Administration (Higher Education Concentration) at the University of New Orleans in New Orleans, Louisiana. She holds an Ed.M. in Higher Education Administration from the State University of New York at Buffalo and a BA in Speech Communication and Canadian Studies the State University of New York College at Plattsburgh. She has worked in higher education since 2005 and has held positions in admissions, residence life, and recruitment/retention initiatives. She is a member of many professional organizations including AERA, AIR, MSERA, and NASPA. In addition to her work and studies in higher education, Lindsey serves on the board of directors of a New Orleans nonprofit organization, the Young Leadership Council. Ms. Jakiel is currently employed at the University of New Orleans as the Chemistry Programs and College of Sciences Recruitment/Retention Coordinator. Her dissertation research investigates the experiences of low-income students of color in their transition from high school to college. Her other research interests include equity of educational access and choice across education, higher education policy and finance, and community cultural wealth.

Ma Xiaoying is from China and has just recently completed a PhD in Chinese higher education entitled The Management of China’s Private Higher Education Sector and its Interaction with Regulation from the Swinburne University of Technology in Melbourne, Australia.

Malcolm Abbott is an Associate Professor of Economics at the Swinburne University of Technology. His area of expertise is in the fields of the Economics of Education, Microeconomic Policy, and the development of utilities markets. In the past, he had worked as a consultant for the government of Victoria, Australia, Singapore, and New Zealand. He holds a PhD from the University of Melbourne in Australia.

Marek Kwiek, Professor and Director, Center for Public Policy Studies, and Chairholder, UNESCO Chair in Institutional Research and Higher Education Policy, University of Poznan, Poland. His research interests include university governance, welfare state, the academic profession, and academic entrepreneurialism. He has published 140 papers and 8 monographs, most recently Knowledge Production in European Universities; States, Markets, and Academic Entrepreneurialism (2013), and The University and the State: A Study into Global Transformation (2006). He serves as an editorial board member in Higher Education Quarterly, European Educational Research Journal, and the European Journal of Higher Education. He is the editor of HERP: Higher Education Research and Policy book series (Peter Lang).

Margarida Fonseca Cardoso is Assistant Professor in the Biomedical School of University of Porto, Portugal: ICBAS—Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, in the scientific areas of biostatistics and epidemiology. Her research interests include Epidemiology, Public Health, and Education. She is co-author of several publications in the area of higher education as a result of her collaboration with CIPES and has also publications in the biomedical area.

Moris Triventi, PhD, is senior research fellow in the Department of Political and Social Sciences and in the Comparative Life Course and Inequality Research Center at the European University Institute (Fiesole). His research interests include social stratification, educational inequalities, and quantitative methods. His works appeared, among others, in European Sociological Review; Work, Employment and Society; and Economics of Education Review.

Paolo Trivellato taught sociology and sociology of education at Milano Bicocca University. Formerly a consultant for the Lombardia Regional Council, he has researched several areas of higher education: the private sector, the academic profession, the student condition, and the process of internationalization.

Pedro N. Teixeira is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Economics and Vice Rector of the University of Porto (Portugal) and Director of CIPES (Center for Research in Higher Education Policies). His main research interests are on the Economics of Education and the History of Economics. He has published several journal articles in higher education and economics journals and has edited several collective volumes.

Ricardo Biscaia is Assistant Professor in Economics at the University Portucalense (Portugal) and is researcher at CIPES. His main research interests are regional and urban economics, the economics of education, and industrial organization.

Robert Wayne Elliott is an assistant professor in aviation science in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Eastern New Mexico University in Portales, New Mexico. His research interests include the study of assessment of student learning in higher education, program effectiveness, and educational policy and analysis. He received his PhD in higher education administration from Texas Tech University.

Robin Middlehurst is Professor of Higher Education at Kingston University, attached to the Vice Chancellor’s Office. Her research covers national and international higher education policy, management and governance focusing on borderless education, leadership, regulation, quality assurance, and privately funded providers. Robin has held director-level roles in national agencies including the Higher Education Quality Council, the Leadership Foundation, and the Higher Education Academy. She held academic positions at the University of Surrey and Institute of Education, London prior to joining Kingston in 2007. Robin has served as a governor in two universities and on the Governing Council of the Society for Research on Higher Education. She was awarded the SRHE Fellowship in 2009. Robin is currently a Trustee of the British Accreditation Council and member of the Observatory on Borderless Higher Education’s Advisory Board. She co-designed and co-directed the UK’s Top Management Program for Higher Education from 1999 to 2013 and undertakes consultancy on higher education policy and management for national and international agencies.

Salha A. Issan graduated with an M.A.Ed. degree in Educational Administration from Hull University, UK and received a PhD in Comparative Education from The Institute of Education, University of London, UK, in 1986. Her research area is in comparative education, and she had lectured and supervised postgraduate students in educational administration in Bahrain University and SQU. She chaired the Master Research Committee in SQU and participated in supervising PhD students at Cairo University, as well as acted as external examiner for PhD dissertations for University of Malaya, Institute of Graduate Studies. Issan worked as a consultant for the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher Education in the Sultanate of Oman. During her period of deanship at SQU, she initiated several reforms in the College of Education, including overseeing the college strategic plan and spearheading the introduction of accreditation and evaluation of the college’s programs. She participated in multiple international research projects, one being The Service Learning Project, in collaboration with four renowned US universities. Issan also presented research papers in her discipline in many conferences all around the world. She is the director of the Quality Assurance Office at SQU at present.

Sue-Ann Stanford has over 20  years’ experience working in the Australian tertiary education (vocational education and training, higher education) sector as an academic, project manager, and consultant. She is currently the Academic Director for Kaplan Professional (KP). Ms. Stanford is currently enrolled in her doctorate of education with the University of Sydney. Private higher education, online learning, and games-based learning are her current research interests.

Vera Rocha is a researcher at CIPES and a Postdoc at CBS (Copenhagen Business School). Her main research interests are related to higher education (HE funding, competition and diversification), industrial organization (entrepreneurship, firm and industry dynamics), and labor economics (wage differentials, human capital, and occupational choice).

Walter Chee Keong Wong is an Australian citizen but was born and bred in Malaysia. In his youth, he attended primary and secondary studies in Chinese schools in Malaysia, tertiary studies in Melbourne, Australia, and postgraduate studies in England, United Kingdom. Professor Wong has spent 48  years practicing as an engineer (mechanical and manufacturing), a researcher, and an academic working in Australia, United Kingdom, Norway, United States of America, Papua New Guinea, and now in Malaysia. Altogether he has published 170 articles in refereed journals, and conference proceeding papers, and he has been successful in obtaining some $60  million  USD of research grants from industry, government, and universities.

In November 2004, Walter was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Science degree by the University of Vudal (UOV) in recognition of his scholarship and distinguished service to Papua New Guinea. Back in October 1998, he was conferred Professor of Emeritus by the Queensland University of Technology (QUT) in recognition of his outstanding contribution to research scholarship and academic leadership.

William Yat Wai Lo is an assistant professor in the Department of International Education and Lifelong Learning, The Hong Kong Institute of Education. His research mainly involves higher education policy and comparative and international higher education with a focus on East Asia. His work appears in international peer reviewed journals.

Yussra Jamjoom holds a PhD from the Institute of Education University of London, a leading research institution in educational studies. She also holds a Masters degree in Information Management from Marymount University, Washington, DC, and a second Masters degree in Assistive Technology from George Mason University, Washington, DC. She holds a Bachelors degree in Accounting from King Abdulaziz University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Dr. Jamjoom served as the Vice Dean of University of Business and Technology (Female Section) in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. In this capacity, she started the first female MBA program in 2008. Dr. Jamjoom also worked at Saudi Embassy of United States in Washington, DC. Dr. Jamjoom’s research interests include higher education policy, national skills development, graduates’ employability, student development, globalization in higher education, and cultural identity.

Preface

Higher education across the world is experiencing significant change. Two of the key drivers are increased levels of educational attainment, resulting in an increasing number of students who complete secondary education and wish to enroll in higher education, and at the same time, the demographic dividend in the developing world is delivering a significant youth bulge. Existing public institutions lack the capacity to meet this demand, resulting in a significant increase in private higher education delivery across many countries.

In various contexts, government policies have played an important role in the formation of private higher education providers. In many developing countries, private higher education providers are playing an important role in increasing access and participation of students, whereas in others, such institutions are encouraged as a means of increasing competition for public institutions. Growing demand for online and distance education presents additional challenges and opportunities for private higher education institutions.

This book brings together insights and analysis of private higher education provisions in 17 different countries/regions.¹ In many countries, higher education is on a growth trajectory; in a number of others, changing demographics signal a reduced demand. In some countries, quality assurance systems for public and private higher education are well established, and in others, they are in their infancy. The demands of attracting and retaining qualified faculty is a challenge in many countries, as is the challenge of financing private higher education and providing access to students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Some governments provide funding and support for private higher education, but in many parts of the world, government financing is only available to public higher students and institutions, presenting challenges for private institutions.

Across the 17 countries/regions explored here there are four common themes that recur. The first relates to quality and regulation, whereby the growth of private higher education has resulted in governments introducing policies to improve quality and consistency in higher education provision. Increasingly, private institutions are now required to meet criteria and standards similar to public universities, and they face sanctions for noncompliance. Understandably in many countries, there remains considerable work to be done on quality and regulation, and this book allows insights to be drawn from countries with more well-established regulatory and accreditation regimes.

Theme two relates to the financing of private higher education. Across the countries and regions analyzed in this publication, there is a diversity of financing options available to private higher education institutions. In developing countries where mass demand for higher education and limited government finances have combined to drive the establishment of the private higher education sector, it is common for these institutions to be reliant on tuition fees paid by the student and their families as their only source of revenue. This, in turn, restricts access to private higher education only to relatively wealthier families and limits the diversity of the private higher education student population. In more developed countries and regions like the US, Europe, and Australia, a wider range of funding options are available to students wishing to study at a private higher education institution, and to the institutions themselves.

Theme three explores the demographics of the student cohort enrolled in private higher education institutions, the courses available to them, the geographic locations in which private higher education providers operate, and their academic entry standards.

Theme four examines the employment outcomes of private higher education graduates. Most scholarly work related to private higher education focuses on government policies and the size and scope of the private higher education sector. While research into the graduate outcomes from private higher education is only just emerging, by its very nature, it is an area of research that warrants further attention in the future. The studies included here are likely to shape that emerging research effort.

Each of the themes above plays out differently in the countries and regions examined in this book. The themes relate to and are impacted by the history, demography, and economies of the various countries and regions. As a result, this book uses a regional framework to explore these common themes.

The book has engaged leading scholars and research students with an interest in private higher education. While the history and role of private higher education in developed countries is generally well known within the academic literature, there is limited research on private higher education in developing countries. This book provides an important contribution to address this significant gap.

In the opening chapter, Abbott and Ma provide a broad overview of the challenges facing private higher education providers. These include the variety of regulatory and quality regimes operating across different private higher education systems, how funding for both the public and private higher education system can impact on student numbers in private higher education, the risks for students associated with studying in private higher education institutions that do not have the backing of government, the systematic instability in private higher education whereby poor quality provision or financial failure in one institution creates reputational damage for all private higher education providers, and the growing convergence between public and private higher education.

Turning next to Europe, Teixeira, Biscaia, Rocha, and Cardoso (Chapter 2) describe the massification of higher education in Europe and the role the private higher education sector plays in meeting this expanded demand. They explore the increasingly private-like behavior of many of Europe’s public higher education institutions. Across most of Europe, private higher education did not flourish until the 1980s when demand for higher education expanded rapidly, particularly in Southern and Eastern Europe. Many European governments have looked at contestability policies as a mean to improve efficiencies in the public sector, hence their support for an expansion of the private higher education sector. Despite this, challenges remain, including the often limited size of the private sector and individual institutions, a lack of diversity of offerings (typically less capital intensive fields such as management, commerce, and social sciences dominate in private institutions), a minimal research profile, and a strong reliance on part-time staff.

Trivellato, Triventi, and Traini (Chapter 3) explore the private higher education sector in Italy, which remains small in size despite recent growth that includes the establishment of online universities. Due in large part to Italy’s aging population, its higher education sector is declining (both public and private), although within that overall decline, the proportion of students educated in the private sector continues to grow. Private higher education does not fit a specific profile in Italy with a mix of elite, semielite, and nonelite institutions, as well as a number of online institutions that are classified as demand absorbing. Private provision is concentrated mostly in the cities of Rome and Milan. Private higher education attracts a higher proportion of women and its graduates tend to be younger; students come from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and are more likely to have an international mobility experience as part of their studies. At this stage, labor market outcomes from private higher education are mixed.

Poland has the largest private higher education sector in Europe, but it is now in clear decline. After 15  years of strong growth, Kwiek (Chapter 4) outlines how enrollments are falling, and a republicization of higher education is underway. Like Italy, the declining demand for higher education is in part due to demographics (an aging population). Kwiek identifies that the future viability of private higher education rests on government funding support (and thus fee levels) in public higher education. The impact of the post-Communist transition in Poland forms an important backdrop to its private higher education system, and Kwiek questions whether private provision will remain a permanent feature of Poland’s higher education system or if it will be remembered as a temporary post-Communist aberration.

Private higher education provision is different again in the United Kingdom. Middlehurst (Chapter 5) notes that while the UK’s public institutions are constitutionally separate from the state (ie, technically private), they receive large-scale public funding. Problems with definitions of private higher education mean that the institutions the rest of the world would recognize as private are known as alternative higher education providers’(HEPs) in the UK. These institutions have only emerged in the last 30  years, with most growth in the past decade. Work is underway to expand the data on alternative HEPs, but based on current datasets, these providers are mostly very small in size and most operate on a for-profit basis. Typically, they offer a small number of programs in a narrow range of fields. They are mostly located in and around London, and approximately half of their student cohorts are international students. Middlehurst outlines a range of ways in which public and alternative HEPs are working together in the delivery of higher education. Government support for students studying at an alternative HEP has significantly expanded in recent years through the provision of government-backed student loans.

Turning from Europe to Asia, a number of similarities and differences emerge. Starting with China, Liu and Elliott (Chapter 6) describe the explicit aim of the Chinese government to expand access to higher education through increased private provision. The Chinese private higher education sector now educates more than one in five students (33.25  million students in 2012). The most popular model of private provision in China has been independently-run colleges affiliated with a public university (comprising 85  percent of all private undergraduate enrollments). There have been regulatory challenges associated with this model, and more recently, the Ministry of Education has enacted regulations to enable these colleges to become truly independent. They are now regulated directly by the Ministry rather than by the parent university. It is intended that these changing regulatory arrangements will also increase the financial transparency of these institutions and strengthen their certificate awarding practices.

Unsurprisingly, there are a number of similarities in the private higher education systems in China and in Hong Kong, including their expansion in the late 1990s following the Asian financial crisis. Lo (Chapter 7) notes that unlike China, much of the growth in private provision in Hong Kong has been in the subdegree sector (mostly in community colleges), and recently the subdegree sector has further diversified and expanded its offerings to include top up associate’s degrees, which enable articulation into undergraduate degrees. In part because of its history, Hong Kong also has an extensive transnational education component to its private higher education provision, whereby typically UK and Australian institutions offer programs in partnership with local institutions through franchise and twinning arrangements, as well as increasingly through branch campuses.

The characteristics of the Malaysian private higher education sector date to independence in 1957. Bajunid and Wong (Chapter 8) note that at the time of independence, Malaysia had only one public university. By 2014, the Malaysian tertiary education sector comprised 20 public universities, 40 private universities, 31 private university colleges, 9 foreign branch campuses, 428 private colleges, 34 polytechnics, and 80 community colleges. Private higher education institutions offer a wide variety of courses and often work collaboratively with public sector institutions. The Malaysian government has been explicit in its recognition of the need for strong and effective regulation of private higher education in Malaysia (including rankings and ratings). These changes are linked to major government policy initiatives (eg, Vision for 2020), which aim to transform the Malaysian economy and society. The role of the two peak bodies for private higher education are also recognized in their collaboration with government on a range of quality initiatives.

India claims the world’s earliest universities and now runs the world’s third largest higher education system, comprising 634 universities (22 percent of which are private institutions). Hegde (Chapter 9) notes that the opening up of the Indian economy in the 1990s led to an increased demand for more skilled workers in different areas of the economy. As a consequence, governments (state and central) approved many private higher education institutions, and by 2012, 64% of all higher education institutions were private, and 59% of all students studied at private institutions. The Indian finance sector has supported this growth through the provision of accessible student loans. Like Malaysia, the private higher education in India also delivers a broad range of education, including Engineering, Pharmacy, Medicine, Allied Science, Biotechnology, Biochemistry, and IT. Indian private institutions typically have good facilities, libraries, laboratories, and governance. Their faculty can teach and undertake research, and they can access government grants to support their activities. The strong graduate employment record of private institutions is a key to their popularity and success. While there is an accreditation system in place, the size of the sector means that there remains considerable accreditation work to be done.

Stafford (Chapter 10) outlines the changing nature of private higher education in Australia, particularly from a political and regulatory context. This includes a recent transfer of regulatory powers from state governments to the federal government and changes to enable private higher education institutions to apply for university status. Changes to course accreditation processes for private higher education institutions are also outlined, alongside recent funding changes, which have expanded access to private higher education through the provision of government-backed student loans. The extensive recent debate on the future of the public and private higher education sectors in Australia is also analyzed.

Moving to the Middle East, Jamjoom (Chapter 11) explores the pressures on higher education in Saudi Arabia against a background of serious youth unemployment, criticism of the public higher education system delivering an oversupply of graduates who do not meet labor market needs and have key weaknesses in their generic skills. The Saudi government and employers are looking to the private higher education system to fill these gaps. In response, since the late 1990s, the private higher education sector has introduced new subjects to the Saudi higher education system, as well as new teaching methods, English language instruction, structured work experience as part of the curriculum (including internships), and career center services to match graduates to employment opportunities. Despite these changes, private higher education providers educate only 6.4  percent of all students in the Kingdom. Private institutions have been important in expanding access for women, offering a number of female-only subjects, which are not available in the public education system because of the country’s gender segregation policies. Despite these initiatives and the strong labor market focus of private higher education providers, graduate outcomes remain a problem for women due to the broader policies of gender segregation.

Oman is also tackling the problem of very high levels of youth unemployment and a growing youth population, according to Issan (Chapter 12). Private Omani institutions do not, however, have the specific labor market focus of their Saudi equivalents. Seven of the 20 privately owned colleges of higher education in Oman are affiliated