Giant Coal-Derived Gas Fields and Their Gas Sources in China

Giant Coal-Derived Gas Fields and Their Gas Sources in China

Jinxing Dai et al.

RIPED, PetroChina

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Foreword I

Foreword II

Preface

Chapter 1. Large Gas Fields and Their Significance in the Natural Gas Industry

1. Large Gas Fields and Their Important Roles

2. Geological and Geochemical Characteristics of Large Gas Fields in China

Chapter 2. Large Coal-Derived Gas Fields and Their Gas Sources in the Ordos Basin

1. Overview of Natural Gas Geology

2. Sulige Gas Field

3. Yulin Gas Field

4. Wushenqi Gas Field

5. Zizhou Gas Field

6. Mizhi Gas Field

7. Shenmu Gas Field

8. Daniudi Gas Field

9. Jingbian Gas Field

10. Gas Accumulation Stages

Chapter 3. Large Coal-Derived Gas Fields and Their Gas Sources in the Sichuan Basin

1. Overview of Natural Gas Geology of the Xujiahe Formation in the Sichuan Basin

2. Guang’an Gas Field

3. Hechuan Gas Field

4. Anyue Gas Field

5. Bajiaochang Gas Field

6. Xinchang Gas Field

7. Luodai Gas Field

8. Qiongxi Gas Field

9. Yuanba Gas Field

Chapter 4. Large Coal-Derived Gas Fields and Their Gas Sources in the Tarim Basin

1. Overview of Natural Gas Geology in Kuqa Depression

2. Kela2 Gas Field

3. Dabei Gas Field

4. Di’na2 Condensate Gas Field

5. Yingmai7 Condensate Gas Field

6. Kokyar Condensate Gas Field

Chapter 5. Large Coal-Derived Gas Fields and Their Gas Sources in the Junggar Basin

1. Overview of Natural Gas Geology

2. Kelameili Gas Field

3. Mahe Gas Field

Chapter 6. Large Coal-Derived Gas Fields and Their Gas Sources in the Songliao Basin

1. Overview of Natural Gas Geology

2. Xushen Gas Field

3. ChanglingI and Songnan Gas Fields

4. Longshen Gas Field

5. Gas Accumulation Stages

Chapter 7. Coal-Derived Gas Fields and the Gas Sources of Offshore China

1. Geological Synopsis of the China Offshore Basins

2. Ya13-1 Gas Field

3. Dongfang1-1 Gas Field

4. Ledong22-1 Gas Field

5. Panyu30-1 Gas Field

6. Liwan3-1 Condensate Gas Field

7. Chunxiao Gas Field

Index

Copyright

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Foreword I

Systematic study in the natural gas geology started in China at the beginning of 1980 and resulted in increase of the estimated gas resources in China from about 5 trillion m³ in 1981 to more than 50 trillion m³ for the next 20 years (Dai, 2005). During last years the growth is even faster. Pioneering works by Jinxing Dai and his coworkers have significantly contributed to this success.

Professor J. Dai is one of the world’s leading scientists in geology and geochemistry of natural gas. Recognition of the significant role of coal-derived gas in the global gas production is related to his name. This idea and practical recommendations proved to be especially productive in China. The gas fields of this type have been discovered in Sichuan, Ordos, and Tarim basins. These discoveries promoted rapid development of the natural gas industry in China.

J. Dai undertook extensive study of isotopic composition of natural gases in China. Owing to his works the isotope geochemistry of hydrocarbon gases in China is one of the most developed in the world now. He made significant contribution to interpretation of isotope geochemistry data of natural gas. By the beginning of 1980 the empirical relationship between carbon isotope composition of methane and maturity of source organic matter (in terms of vitrinite reflectance coefficient) was established by W. Stahl and M. Schoell. The relationships were slightly different, although parallel for sapropelic and humic type of organic matter. In 1987, Dai with coauthors published the paper Parameters of coal-genetic gas identification, where the authors argued that coal-derived gas was characterized by methane isotope composition-vis-maturation degree relationship different of that, which was established by Stahl. This gave an impulse to develop more strong theoretical interpretation of the empirical relationships. When it has been done, it became clear that the Stahl’s curve describes the isotopic composition of methane released instantaneously that is in case when methane generated in the previous stages was lost. This situation took place in the German gases from coal mines, which were studied by W. Stahl. In contrast, Dai’s curve is more general. It corresponds to the averaged isotopic composition of the total mass of methane from source organic matter that is typical for accumulated coal-derived gases, which formed gas fields. The achieved understanding not only solved the isotope geochemistry problem, but also brought about a new gas generation concept in general. It has been shown that organic matter in the form of coal or dispersed coalified (humic type) organic matter might produce huge amount of methane in relatively early stage. In particular, giant gas accumulation in cenomanian deposits in the West Siberia had this origin. And the same is true for many gas fields in China.

For more than 40 years, Professor Dai has carried out his geochemical research in the famous Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina. Many well-known scientists gratefully call him their teacher.

Professor Dai is the author of more than 200 articles, 24 books, and of many internationally recognized scientific achievements. He is an active participant of international conferences in the United States, Russia, Germany, France, India, etc., and the organizer of many scientific meetings in China.

In 2008, Professor Dai gave an invited lecture at the 48th V.I. Vernadsky Scientific Reading in Moscow. At such a meeting which is organized every year (March 12 at the V.I. Vernadsky birthday) by the Russian Academy of Science, the most prominent outstanding scientists are invited. His lecture Natural gas accumulation in Eastern China had great success and was published as a book in Russia.

I believe that translation into English of his recent book Giant Coal-Derived Gas Fields and Their Gas Sources in China will meet with great interest of the international scientific community.

E.M. Galimov,     Professor, academician

Foreword II

China has made great progress in coal-derived hydrocarbon research. Theory of coal-derived hydrocarbons is a significant characteristic and constituent of terrestrial oil-generation theory in China. Coal-bearing formations were widely developed in China during several geological periods, ie, the Early Carboniferous, Carboniferous–Permian, Late Permian, Early Triassic, Late Triassic, Early Jurassic, Middle Jurassic, Late Jurassic, Paleogene, and Neogene. Numerous coal-bearing basins were found in China with the coal production and reserves being at the forefront of the world.

The geology research works on coal-derived gas in China started in the 1970s, marked by the publication of the paper The oil and gas generation during coalification by Professor Dai Jinxing. After more than 30 years of research works (sample collection, experimental analysis, and theoretical research), a series of books and articles were published by Professor Dai and his research team, ie, Preliminary research on the indicators for coal-derived gas and oil-derived gas (1985), Natural Gas Geology in China, vol. 1 (1992), Identification and distinction of various alkane gases (1992), Formation of the central-Asia coal-derived gas accumulation domain and its source rocks-series on the central-Asia coal-derived gas accumulation domain, vol. 1 (1995), Accumulation play of giant and middle class natural gas fields in China (1997), and Geochemical characteristics, accumulation process and resources evaluation of coal-derived gas fields in China (2001), etc.

The coal-derived gas theory has shifted the guidelines for natural gas exploration in China from monism (oil-derived gas) to dualism (coal-derived gas and oil-derived gas). Several large coal-derived gas fields have been discovered, ie, gas reservoirs in the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation of Hechuan, Guang’an, Xinchang, and Yuanba gas fields in the Sichuan Basin, gas reservoirs in the Lower Permian Shihezi and Shanxi formations of Sulige, Wushenqi, Yulin, and Daniudi gas fields in the Ordos Basin, gas reservoirs in the Upper Cretaceous of Kela-2, Dina-2, and Dabei gas fields in the Kuqa Depression, Traim Basin, the Paleogene and Neogene gas reservoirs of Ya 13-1, Dongfang 1-1, and Ledong 22-1 gas fields in the Yingqiong Basin, the Paleogene and Neogene gas reservoirs of Pinghu, and Chunxiao gas fields in the Donghai Basin.

The coal-derived gas theory enhanced a rapid development of Chinese natural gas industry. The total proven original gas in place (OGIP) and yearly production of natural gas were 2268 × 10⁸ m³ and 151 × 10⁸ m³ in 1978. After that, the Chinese gas industry has increased greatly under the guidance of the coal-derived gas theory. By the end of 2012, the total proven OGIP reserves of natural gas in China have reached 92,290 × 10⁸ m³, ranked the top 11th in the world. Meanwhile, the gas production in 2012 was 1072 × 10⁸ m³ ranked the top sixth in the world. Coal-derived gas holds a dominant position in the increase of gas reverses and production in China.

CAS member Dai Jinxing has devoted himself into natural gas geology and geochemistry research for more than 40 years. He established and developed the coal-derived gas theory in China, which effectively guidelines the discovery, exploration, and development of Chinese coal-derived gas fields. His new book Giant coal-derived gas fields and their gas sources in China will be published this year. This book is a well combination of the theory of coal-derived gas and prospecting practice over the past few decades, bearing the coal-derived gas theory into a new stage. In the book, great progress was made in the geochemistry of coal-derived gas, especially in the accuracy and reliability of gas–source correlation. It is a masterpiece provided for petroleum geologists, students in colleges, and field engineers. Congratulations for this new publication.

Senior Member of Chinese Academy of Sciences

March 2014

Preface

Since the appearance of coal-derived gas theory in 1979, it has been improved continuously which greatly accelerated the development of Chinese natural gas industry. Before 1978, natural gas exploration was poorly performed in China with total proven reserves and yearly production of 2264 × 10⁸ m³ and 137 × 10⁸ m³, respectively. Since then, great improvement of Chinese natural gas industry has been made under the guidance of coal-derived gas theory. By 2014, the total proven reserves and yearly production of natural gas in China have reached 10.64 × 10¹² m³ and 1248 × 10⁸ m³, respectively. The yearly production was eight times more than that before 1979, 76% of which was coal-derived gas. This is greatly benefited from the development of coal-derived gas theory.

Of the total proven reserves and yearly production of coal-derived gas, those from the giant coal-derived gas fields (total proven reserves >300 × 10⁸ m³) account for a major part. By the end of 2014, altogether 54 giant gas fields with each proven reserves over 300 × 10⁸ m³ had been discovered, 33 of which are coal-derived gas fields with total proven reserves and yearly output reaching 6.89 × 10¹² m³ and 784 × 10⁸ m³, respectively, accounting for 64.75% and 62.82% of the total proven reverses and yearly output in China. Therefore, these giant coal-derived gas fields play an important role in Chinese natural gas industry, which is the key point reflected in this book.

In this book, major geological characteristics (caprocks, source rocks, and reservoirs), natural gas geochemistry, gas origins, and accumulation periods of coal-derived gas pools are discussed. In particular, multiple indicators, diagrams, phases (liquid, solid, and gaseous), and identification methods were introduced to perform a comprehensive gas–source correlation.

This book is the English edition. Its Chinese edition was published by Science Press in 2014.

Besides Dai Jinxing, authors include Zou Caineng, Hu Guoyi, Li Wei, Li Jian, Tao Shizhen, Zhu Guangyou, Ni Yunyan, Yang Chun, Huang Baojia, Shi Hesheng, Huang Shipeng, Zhang Wenzheng, Liu Quanyou, Xie Zengye, Li Zhisheng, Qin Shengfei, Li Xushen, Zhu Junzhang, Luo Xia, Zhao Zehui, Yang Zhi, Li Jin, Wang Xiaobo, Jiang Xiaohua, Gong Yanjie, Tao Xiaowan, Liao Fengrong, Yu Cong, Gong Deyu, Fang Chenchen, Wu Wei, Meng Qingqiang, Wang Jie, and Liu Dan.

Jinxing Dai

March 2016

Chapter 1

Large Gas Fields and Their Significance in the Natural Gas Industry

Abstract

Different standards for and definitions of large gas fields have been given by scholars around the world. Large gas fields lay out the foundation for a country to become a major gas producer; for instance, Russia is considered the Saudi Arabia of natural gas due to its prominent gas fields. This chapter defines the classification criteria of large gas fields based on the area, reserves, and economic efficiencies of the gas fields in a number of countries. These criteria are explained, including what constitutes large gas producers and small gas producers. In addition, the transformation of China into a large gas producer is described, as are the basic geological and geochemical characteristics of the country’s large gas fields.

Keywords

Natural gas; large gas field; alkane gas; methane; ethane; propane; butane; reservoir

Chapter Outline

1. Large Gas Fields and Their Important Roles 1

1.1 Classification Criteria of Large Gas Fields 1

1.2 Large Gas Field—An Important Foundation for a Great Gas-Producing Country 2

1.2.1 Large Gas Fields Change China from a Poor Gas Producer to a Great Gas Producer 3

1.2.2 Large Gas Fields Make Russia the Saudi Arabia of Natural Gas 6

2. Geological and Geochemical Characteristics of Large Gas Fields in China 10

2.1 Geochemical Characteristics 10

2.1.1 Natural Gas Components 10

2.1.2 Natural Gas Sources 11

2.2 Geological Characteristics 23

2.2.1 Reservoir 23

2.2.2 Gas Accumulation Stages 27

2.2.3 Gas Reservoir Types 29

References 31

1. Large Gas Fields and Their Important Roles

1.1. Classification Criteria of Large Gas Fields

There are different standards for and definitions of large gas fields, given by scholars around the world. The classification criteria of large gas fields are defined based on the area, reserves, and economic efficiency of the gas fields in many countries. Sometimes a gas field with major significance in the development of the natural gas industry also has been defined as a large gas field in some countries. But in general, reserves are usually the defining standard for large gas fields in the world (Dai et al., 2003).

Various reserves have been used in different countries. The term proved reserves is used in China and Russia (formerly the Soviet Union), but original recoverable reserves is used more often in Europe and in the United States. Different countries and scholars have different limit reserves for large gas fields; even the same expert has been known to have different standards at different times. For example, M.T. Halbouty defined a gas field with recoverable reserves of 283 × 10⁸ m³ as a large gas field in 1968, but he changed the standard to 991 × 10⁸ m³ in 1970 and 860 × 10⁸ m³ in 2001 (as indicated in Table 1.1). Table 1.1 shows the number of large gas fields around the world and the large gas field classification standards proposed by domestic and foreign scholars.

Table 1.1

Large Gas Field Classification Standards at Different Times

∗ Cited in Kunio (1977)

The term large gas field refers to a gas field with reserves higher than the lower limit reserves of the large gas field proposed by scholars, but limits of reserves have been distributed in a very wide range. In Russia/the Soviet Union, some scholars further classified large gas fields into large, giant, and super-large, taking into account the great number of gas fields discovered in this country (Table 1.2). In China and Russia/the Soviet Union (cited in Kunio, 1977), a large gas field is defined as having proved geological reserves of more than 300 × 10⁸ m³ (Table 1.3). This standard is used in this book.

1.2. Large Gas Field—An Important Foundation for a Great Gas-Producing Country

The term great gas-producing country refers to a country with an annual natural gas production of 500 × 10⁸ m³ or more. Although the number of great gas-producing countries has increased during the last 20 years, they amount to less than one sixth of the total gas-producing countries in the world. These great gas-producing countries are often countries with great land area, such as Russia, the United States, Canada, China, Algeria, Indonesia, and Iran; but they also can be countries with a small land area, such as the Netherlands and Qatar. The key characteristic of a great gas-producing country is the number of large, giant, or super-large gas fields that it contains. For example, Qatar and the Netherlands qualify as great gas-producing countries because of their super-large gas fields.

Table 1.2

Oil and Gas Field Classification Standards According to Soviet Scholars

Table 1.3

Chinese Oil and Gas Classifications

1.2.1. Large Gas Fields Change China from a Poor Gas Producer to a Great Gas Producer

In 1949, the Chinese total proved geological reserves of natural gas stood at only 3.8 × 10⁸ m³, with an annual gas production of 0.11 × 10⁸ m³. The amounts changed in 1990 to 7045 × 10⁸ m³ and 152 × 10⁸ m³, respectively, but China was still a poor gas-producing country due to having only six proved large gas fields (Dai, 2003), with reserves of less than 1000 × 10⁸ m³ in each. However, from 1991 to 2011, the number of large gas fields increased every year except 1996 and 2009. A total of 42 large gas fields were found over these 21 years, with an average rate of two new ones every year. By the end of 2011, 48 large gas fields had been found in China (Figure 1.1). Based on the theory of coal-derived gas (Dai, 1986), the Jingbian gas field in the Ordos Basin was discovered in 1992; it is the first large gas field in China, with reserves of more than 1000 × 10⁸ m³. Later, many other large gas fields were found, which changed China from a poor gas-producing country to a great gas-producing country.

Figure 1.1  Distribution of large gas fields in China

As shown in Figure 1.2, two new large gas fields were discovered every year on average from 1991 to 2011, which accelerated the growth of reserves in China. By the end of 2011, the total proved geological reserves of natural gas of the 48 large gas fields in China was 68,033.9 × 10⁸ m³, accounting for 81.6% of the total proved natural gas reserves in the country (83,377.6 × 10⁸ m³). Moreover, the reserves of coal-derived gas in the large gas fields was 51,751 × 10⁸ m³, accounting for 76% of the total Chinese natural gas reserves. Therefore, the discovery of a great number of large gas fields and the large increase of natural gas reserves since 1991 are the bases for China to become a great gas-producing country.

Comparing Figure 1.2 with Figure 1.3, it can be seen that the number of the large gas fields and the natural gas reserves have a significant positive correlation from 1991 to 2000 in China, but it is out of sync with the annual natural gas production during the same period. This phenomenon occurs due to the time delay for gas field exploitation and pipeline construction, but it has disappeared after 2001 and there is a significant positive correlation between them.

Figure 1.2  Correlation between the number of the large gas fields and the gas reserves from 1949 to 2011 in China

Figure 1.3  Correlation between the number of the large gas fields and the gas production from 1949 to 2011 in China

Figure 1.4  Annual gas production of top five large gas fields and their proportion of total production in China from 2001 to 2011

Because large gas fields were discovered every year since 1990, the natural gas production increased continuously in China. In 2005, the annual natural gas production was 499.5 × 10⁸ m³, which transformed China into a great gas-producing country. In 2011, China became the seventh-largest gas-producer in the world, with an annual natural gas production of 1025 × 10⁸ m³ (Figure 1.3).

Large and super-large gas fields with huge reserves (for example, the Urengoy gas field and Yamburg gas field in Russia, the North gas field in Qatar, and the Groningen gas field in the Netherlands) always play an important role in a country becoming a great gas-producer. This is the case in China, too. The Sulige, Jingbian, Daniudi, and Puguang gas fields (the four largest gas fields in China), as well as the Kela2 gas field, with the greatest amount of reserves, were very important in turning China into a great gas-producing country. For example, the annual gas production of these five gas fields accounted for around 11.0% of the total annual gas production of China in 2001, and this proportion increased to 31.7% in 2011 (Figure 1.4). In particular, in the same year, the annual gas production of Sulige gas field, the largest gas field in China, reached 133.38 × 10⁸ m³, accounting for 13.0% of the total annual gas production of the country.

1.2.2. Large Gas Fields Make Russia the Saudi Arabia of Natural Gas

The cumulative proved natural gas reserves and natural gas production in Russia were 64 × 10¹² m³ (Zhu et al., 2012) and 19.66 × 10¹² m³, respectively, by the end of 2012. Therefore, the natural gas situation in Russia is comparable to crude oil in Saudi Arabia, which has been the most oil-productive country over a long period of time. Therefore, Russia is known as the Saudi Arabia of natural gas. However, at the beginning of the 1950s, the Soviet Union was a poor gas-producing country, with proved natural gas reserves of less than 2230 × 10⁸ m³ and annual gas production of 57 × 10⁸ m³. Then, many super-large gas fields (reserves more than 5000 × 10⁸ m³) and large gas fields (reserves of 300 × 10⁸–5000 × 10⁸ m³) were discovered between 1960 and 1990, and the country’s natural gas reserves increased from 18,548 × 10⁸ m³ to 453,069 × 10⁸ m³ during these 30 years. Owing to the exploitation of these gas fields, the country’s annual natural gas production increased from 453 × 10⁸ m³ to 8150 × 10⁸ m³, and that made the Soviet Union a great gas-producing country. In 1983, the Soviet Union supplanted the United States (4696 × 10⁸ m³) as the most gas-productive country, with gas production around 5353 × 10⁸ m³ (Dai et al., 2003), and it stayed on top until 1996. After this, due to the large-scale exploitation of unconventional gas (tight sand gas and shale gas) in the United States, the United States and Russia have alternated between being in first place on the world’s gas-producing list.

Large gas fields, giant gas fields, and super-large gas fields have been the basis for Russia becoming a great gas-producing country. In 1993, the gas production of Russia was 6008 × 10⁸ m³, and the production of the giant and super-large gas fields was 5546 × 10⁸ m³, accounting for 92.3% of the total; the production of large gas fields accounted for 6.3%; and the production of medium-sized and small gas fields accounted for only 1.4%, with a production of 82 × 10⁸ m³ (Li & Jin, 2005). In 1981, the proved natural gas reserves of 93 large gas fields accounted for more than 94% of the total proved natural gas reserves in the Soviet Union, and 8 of these (Urengoy, Yamburg, Zapalyarniye, Medvezhye, Bovanenko, Orenburg, Kharasavey, and Kyrtaiol’skoye gas fields) are super-large gas fields with proved natural gas reserves of more than 1 × 10¹² m³ (Vasiliev, 1983; also see Figure 1.5). In 2000, 700 gas fields had been discovered in Russia, and the proved natural gas reserves of them was 48.11 × 10¹² m³. Among these, the gas reserves of 21 super-large gas fields, 118 large gas fields, and 561 medium-sized and small gas fields accounted for 74.1%, 23.3%, and 2.6% of the total production, respectively (Li & Jin, 2005).

Russia prioritized the exploitation of a few super-large gas fields (Medvezhye, Urengoy, Yamburg, and Zapalyarniye gas fields) in the north of the West Siberia Basin, which made it a great gas-producing country (Figures 1.6 and 1.7). The Medvezhye gas field was the first super-large gas field put into development in the West Siberia Basin in 1972. It reached its exploitation peak in the 1980s to early 1990s, and entered the late period of its development at the beginning of the twenty-first century. The Medvezhye and Urengoy gas fields (put into development in 1978) allowed the Soviet Union to surpass the United States in natural gas production in 1983 (Figure 1.6).

The Urengoy gas field, with natural gas geological reserves of 135,000 × 10⁸ m³, is the largest gas field in the West Siberia Basin of Russia. It is also one of the largest gas fields with the highest annual natural gas production in the world. The Urengoy gas field reached production peak in 1987 with a natural gas production of 8.06 × 10⁸ m³/d (Zhu et al., 2012), and then production started to decline (Figure 1.6). The cumulative gas production of this gas field was 21,000 × 10⁸ m³ in early 1990, and became the field with the maximum cumulative gas production in the world. Figures 1.6 and 1.7 show that the exploration and development of a few super-large gas fields (namely, Urengoy, Yamburg, Zapalyarniye, and Medvezhye gas fields) and a gas-rich province (West Siberia Basin) formed the basis for Russia becoming a great gas-producing country. From 1995 to 2012, the natural gas production of three super-large gas fields (Urengoy, Yamburg, and Zapalyarniye gas fields) was the main pillars of Russia; the annual gas production of these three gas fields was 4582.3 × 10⁸ m³ in 2004, accounting for 75.4% of the total gas production of Russia (6076.5 × 10⁸ m³); generally, the gas production of these fields occupied more than 60% of the total gas production of Russia, except in 2011, when they accounted for 57.1% (Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.5  Oil and gas field distribution in the West Siberia Basin (modified from Ulmishek, 2003)

Figure 1.6  Natural gas production of Nadym-Taz in the West Siberia Basin (from IHS, 2005)

Figure 1.7  Annual gas production of three large gas fields and the proportion of them in Russia from 1995 to 2012 (annual gas production from the Wood Database)

2. Geological and Geochemical Characteristics of Large Gas Fields in China

By the end of 2011, 48 large gas fields, with geological reserves of more than 300 × 10⁸ m³ each, had been found in China (Figure 1.1), with total proved reserves of 67,945.9 × 10⁸ m³, accounting for 81.5% of the total proved natural gas reserves in China. The annual gas production of these 48 large gas fields was 733.16 × 10⁸ m³ in 2011, accounting for 71.5% of the total annual gas production in China. The reserves and annual gas production of the Sulige gas field in the Ordos Basin rank first in both proved gas reserves and gas production in China, accounting for 15.3% of the country’s total reserves and 13.0% of the country’s total production, respectively. Clearly, large gas fields play a crucial role in the natural gas industry of China, and research on their geological and geochemical characteristics is of great importance to promoting the exploration and exploitation of large gas fields in China.

2.1. Geochemical Characteristics

2.1.1. Natural Gas Components

Alkane gas only consists of methane, ethane, propane, and butane (C1−4), exclusive of pentane. A histogram of natural gas composition of China (Figure 1.8) was plotted based on the analysis of 1025 gas samples taken from 48 large gas fields in nine basins across the country (as of the end of 2011), showing that the main gas components of these gas samples are alkanes: the average content of methane is 88.22%, and the average content of ethane, propane, and butane is 3.31%, 0.97%, and 0.49%, respectively. Among the nonhydrocarbon gases, the average content of CO2, N2, and H2S is 3.58%, 2.94%, and 5.13%, respectively. Generally, H2S exists in carbonate reservoirs (Dai et al., 1989). However, because only a few large carbonate gas fields were found in China, there are only a few large gas fields containing H2S. Well Puguang3 in the Puguang gas field in the Sichuan Basin has an H2S content of 49.66%, and it is the well with the highest H2S content in China. Analysis of the content of alkane gas in Figure 1.8 shows the following:

Figure 1.8  Composition of natural gas in the large gas fields in China (gas sample numbers are in brackets)

• Average component content decreases along with the increase of the carbon number in the molecules of alkane gas.

• The highest content of alkane gas among these 1025 samples also shows similar features; i.e., the highest content of CH4 among these 1025 samples to the highest content of C4H10 among these 1025 samples is in descending order.

Figure 1.9 shows a triangular diagram of C1−4, N2, and CO2 content, plotted based on 1025 gas samples. It demonstrates that the content of alkane gas in most gas samples (1002 gas samples) exceeds 70%, and 5 gas samples taken from the Dongfang1−1 gas field in the Yingqiong Basin, and gas samples taken from the Changling1 gas field in the Songliao Basin show a CO2 content of 60%–80% and 16.5%–98.7%, respectively. The δ¹³CCO2 and R/Ra values of gas samples taken from the Dongfang1−1 gas field range from −3.4‰ to −2.8‰ and 0.07–0.14, respectively, indicating that the CO2 in this field is of typical crustal source abiogenic origin, but the alkane gas of these samples shows a positive carbon isotope series (δ¹³C1<δ¹³C2<δ¹³C3<δ¹³C4), revealing an organic origin. The δ¹³CCO2 and R/Ra values of gas samples taken from Changling1 gas field range from −7.5‰ to −5.3‰ and 1.9–4.6, respectively, indicating that the CO2 is of mantle source abiogenic origin (Dai et al., 2009); most of the associated alkane gas has a negative carbon isotope series, indicating abiogenic origin, but a few gas samples have the carbon isotope composition of a coal-derived gas.

2.1.2. Natural Gas Sources

The gas source of large gas fields refers to the genetic type of alkane gas which comprises most of the gas components (Dai et al., 2013). Dai et al. (2014) recently studied the genetic type of alkane gas of 20 large gas fields with reserves of more than 1000 × 10⁸ m³ in China. Based on the gas component and δ¹³C1, δ¹³C2, and δ¹³C3 data, the gas source of alkane gas of these fields are identified by the δ¹³C1−δ¹³C2−δ¹³C3 diagram (Dai et al., 2014) and δ¹³C1−C1/C2+3 diagram (Whiticar, 1999; Dai et al., 2009; also see Figures 1.10 and 1.11). It can be seen that the gas source type of large gas fields in China is various and dominantly coal-derived: the alkane gas of 14 large gas fields (Sulige, Daniudi, Yulin, Zizhou, Wushenqi, Hechuan, Guang’an, Anyue, Yuanba, Xinchang, Kela2, Dina2, Dongfang1−1, and Kelameili gas fields) is mainly coal-derived; the alkane gas of two large gas fields (Tazhong1 and Datianchi gas fields) is oil-associated; the alkane gas of one large gas field (Tainan gas field) is biogenetic; and that of the rest (Jingbian, Puguang, and Xushen gas fields) is mixed-type (Dai et al., 2014).

Figure 1.9  (a,b) Triangular diagram of C 1—4 -N 2 -CO 2 of large gas fields in China

Figure 1.10  δ ¹³ C 1 -δ ¹³ C 2 -δ ¹³ C 3 identification diagram for alkane gas of large gas fields with reserves of more than 1000 × 10 ⁸ m ³ in China (from Dai et al., 2014)

Apart from the 20 large gas fields mentioned here, another 28 large gas fields in China have similar alkane gas types. Based on Figure 1.12 and the research results of other scholars (e.g., Deng & Chen, 1992; Kang et al., 2000; Dai et al., 2003; Dai, 2009; Dai et al., 2012a, 2012b), among the 28 large gas fields, 13 (Bajiaochang, Luodai, Qiongxi, Yingmai7, Dabei, Dabei1, Kekeya, Shenmu, Mizhi, Ya13−1, Ledong22−1, Chunxiao, and Mahe gas fields) have coal-derived alkane gas; 7 (Hetianhe, Tahe, Weiyuan, Dukouhe, Tieshanpo, Luojiazhai, and Wolonghe gas fields) have oil-associated alkane gas; 2 (Sebei1 and Sebei2 gas fields) have biogenetic alkane gas; and the rest (Panyu30−1, Liwan3−1, Moxi3−1, Songnan, Changling1, and Longshen gas fields) have mixed-type gas (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.11  δ ¹³ C 1 -C 1 /C 2+3 identification diagram for alkane gas of large gas fields with reserves of more than 1000 × 10 ⁸ m ³ in China (from Whiticar, 1999)

Scholars have different views on the proportion of coal-derived gas, oil-associated gas, and abiogenic gas in the mixed-type gas:

• Mixed alkane gas dominated by coal-derived gas and supplemented with oil-associated gas, such as the Jingbian gas field in the Ordos Basin. The main reservoirs in the Jingbian gas field are the paleokarst carbonate rocks (in the Ordovician Majiagou Formation) that experienced karstification for 140 million years (Chen, 1994a; Huang et al., 1996; Xia, 2000; Dai et al., 2005a). Scholars have varying opinions on the origin of gas in the Majiagou Formation: (i) Some scholars considered it as oil-associated gas derived mainly from the carbonate rock in the Majiagou Formation, mixed with some coal-derived gas from the overlying Carboniferous-Permian coal measures (Chen, 1994a; Huang et al., 1996). Chen (1994a) stated that 75% of the natural gas in the Majiagou Formation is derived from Ordovician carbonate rock. Dai et al. (2005a) and Xia (2000) measured the total organic carbon (TOC) value of 449 and 702 samples taken from the Majiagou Formation as an average of 0.240% and 0.198%, respectively, indicating that the carbonate rock in the Mjiagou Formation is unlikely to be an effective gas source of oil-associated gas. (ii) Other scholars considered the gas in the Majiagou Formation was mainly coal-derived gas and supplemented with oil-associated gas (Zhang et al., 1992; Guan et al., 1993; Dai et al., 2005a; Yang et al., 2009). The δ¹³C2 value of coal-derived gas is usually greater than −28‰ (or −28.5‰), while that of oil-associated gas is generally less than −29‰ (Dai, 2011). As shown in Table 1.4, more than two-thirds of the gas samples taken from the Ordovician have a δ¹³C2 value greater than −28.5‰, indicating coal-derived origin from the Carboniferous-Permian coal measures; and one-third of the gas samples have a δ¹³C2 value of less than −29‰, suggesting an oil-associated origin from the Carboniferous-Permian limestone. The limestone layer in the Jingbian gas field (about 40 m thick at most), thins outward before pinchout, with organic matter type of II2 and TOC mean value of 0.59%. The natural gas generated in the Carboniferous-Permian coal measures and limestone accumulated in the underlying Majiagou Formation by migrating through ancient karst weathering the crust and karren (Zhao et al., 2013b). This view has been confirmed by exploration.

Figure 1.12  Different types of reservoirs, source rock, and natural gas of large gas fields in China (as of 2011)

Table 1.4

δ¹³C1—δ¹³C4 Values of the Jingbian Gas Field in the Ordos Basin (Dai et al., 2005a)

O1m—Ordovician Majiagou Formation; C2b—Carboniferous Benxi Formation; P1s—Permian Shanxi Formation

• Mixed alkane gas dominated by oil-associated gas and supplemented with coal-derived gas, like that in the Puguang gas field, where two H2S-rich organic reef gas reservoirs, the Feixianguan and Changxing formations, have been developed. Since abundant bitumen was found in the reservoirs, the alkane gas was considered to be an oil-associated gas formed by the cracking of oil. Some scholars believed that the carbon isotope composition of alkane gas in this gas field becomes heavier with the strengthening of thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR) action (Cai et al., 2003; Zhu et al., 2005; Guo & Guo, 2012). In the Puguang gas field, the TSR action had little effect on the δ¹³C1 value, but it affected the δ¹³C2 value greatly; i.e., the δ¹³C2 value increased significantly when the H2S content exceeded 10% (Guo & Guo, 2012). This conclusion contradicts the fact that the δ¹³C2 value of natural gas does not increase in the Zhongba gas field of the Sichuan Basin or in many H2S-containing gas fields of the Western Canada Basin (Table 1.5). As shown in Table 1.5, the first eight gas samples have an H2S content of 3.56%–16.2%, the δ¹³C1−3 values are characterized by a normal sequence (δ¹³C1<δ¹³C2<δ¹³C3), but the δ¹³C2 value does not increase, indicating that the TSR action cannot increase the δ¹³C2 value whether the H2S content is more or less than 10%; the H2S content of the last five gas samples varies from 3.1%–29.5%, the δ¹³C1−3 values all exhibit δ¹³C1>δ¹³C2, and the δ¹³C2 value becomes small. Therefore, the TSR action is not inherently related to the variation of the δ¹³C value. Tilley et al. (2011) reached the same conclusion after testing 54 gas samples with H2S content ranging from <0.01% to 29.5% in the Western Canada Basin. Therefore, the increase of the δ¹³C2 value of the gas in the Puguang gas field is not caused by the TSR action, but by the original characteristics of the source rocks.

Moreover, the misleading interpretation of the δ¹³C2 value being greater disguises the existence of coal-derived gas in this gas field. As shown in Table 1.6, the δ¹³C1 and δ¹³C2 values of the gas taken from Well PG-2 (P2ch) are −30.1‰ and −27.7‰, respectively, and those from Well PG-2 (P2l) are −30.6‰ and −25.2‰, respectively. Obviously, the δ¹³C2 value is greater than −28‰, showing a coal-derived gas origin; however, the gas taken from other wells mainly shows oil-associated origin features. Therefore, the alkane gas of the Puguang gas field is a mixed gas dominated by oil-associated gas and supplemented with coal-derived gas. This conclusion is supported by the δ¹³C1−δ¹³C2−δ¹³C3 diagram (Figure 1.10) and is consistent with the findings of Ma et al. (2007).

• Mixed alkane gas dominated by abiogenic alkane gas and supplemented with coal-derived gas, such as the Xushen gas field. Xushen gas field (previously named Qingshen gas field) is located in the Xujiaweizi rift in the Songliao Basin, taking the Lower Cretaceous Yingcheng Formation volcanic rock as its reservoir. It consists of several small gas reservoirs (fields) of Yingcheng Formation, such as Wangjiatun, Shengping, Xingcheng, and Fengle (Figure 1.13). A number of scholars (Dai et al., 2005b; Feng, 2008; Zou et al., 2008; Dai et al., 2009; Zeng et al., 2013) pointed out that the alkane gas of these reservoirs (fields) is dominated by abiogenic gas and supplemented with coal-derived gas, but had different views on the proportion of gas from each of these two origins. Some scholars believed that it was mainly composed of coal-derived gas, with little abiogenic gas (Feng, 2008; Zeng et al., 2013), while others held the opposite view (Dai et al., 2009). The authors of this book support the second viewpoint—i.e., the gas in the Xushen gas field is dominated by abiogenic alkane gas and supplemented with coal-derived gas based on the following reasons:

Table 1.5

H2S Content and δ¹³C1—δ¹³C4 Values of Natural Gas in the Sichuan Basin and Western Canada Basin

T2l—Triassic Leikoupo Formation

Table 1.6

Geochemical Data of Natural Gas of the Puguang Gas Field in the Sichuan Basin

T1f—Triassic Feixianguan Formation; P2ch—Permian Changxing Formation; P2l—Permian Longtan Formation

(i) The negative carbon isotope series (δ¹³C1>δ¹³C2>δ¹³C3>δ¹³C4) predominates, indicating abiogenic origin. As shown in Figure 1.14 and Table 1.7, among the 39 gas samples, 23 have a negative carbon isotope series, accounting for 59.0% of the total; only 4 have a positive carbon isotope series (δ¹³C1<δ¹³C2<δ¹³C3<δ¹³C4), accounting for 10.3%; and 12 have a reversed carbon isotope series, accounting for 30.7%. A negative carbon isotope series is generally the feature of abiogenic gas (Galimov, 1973; Zorkin et al., 1984; Dai, 1992; Yang et al., 1999; Dai et al., 2005b, 2009), which has been widely found in the magmatite inclusions in the Kra Peninsula of Russia, the Lost City Mid-Ocean Ridge of the North Atlantic, and the Murchison carbonaceous meteorite of Australia (Zorkin et al., 1984; Yuen et al., 1984; Proskurowski et al., 2008). The alkane gas of organic origin could either be coal-derived or oil-associated. The δ¹³C2 value of four wells [Shs1, Shs2, Ws1 (Zeng et al., 2013), and Shs6 (Yang et al., 1999)] exhibiting a positive carbon isotope series in Table 1.7 are −24.7‰, −22.7‰, −23.3‰, and −25.3‰, respectively; and the alkane gas in them all belongs to coal-derived gas according to the assessment criteria of oil-associated gas and coal-derived gas (Dai, 2011). In short, the alkane gas in the Xushen gas field is dominated by abiogenic gas, with some coal-derived gas and carbon isotope reversed gas, which account for 59%, 10.3%, and 30.7% of the total, respectively; therefore, the alkane gas in the Xushen gas field is dominated by abiogenic alkane gas and supplemented with coal-derived gas (Dai et al., 2014).

Figure 1.13  The Xushen gas field, composed of small gas reservoirs

Figure 1.14  Carbon isotope of methane and its homologues of gas from the Xushen gas field

(ii) The high content of mantle-derived helium confirms the existence of anatectic abiogenic alkane gas. The R/Ra value of crustal helium is generally believed to be 0.01–0.10 (Wang, 1989). Jenden et al. (1993) pointed out that mantle-derived helium existed when the R/Ra value exceeded 0.1. As shown in Table 1.7, the R/Ra value of gas in the Xushen gas field ranges from 0.8–1.9, indicating the existence of 10.3%–21.6% mantle-derived helium. Dai et al. (2008) pointed out that alkane gas was of abiogenic origin only when the R/Ra and δ¹³C1−δ¹³C2 values were greater than 0.5 and 0, respectively. The δ¹³C1−δ¹³C2 values of wells with R/Ra data in Table 1.7 are all greater than 0, indicating an abiogenic origin of most alkane gas.

(iii) The Shengping and Wangjiatun gas reservoirs have very high mercury (Hg) content in some gas wells (Shsg2: 4.05 × 10⁶ ng/m³; Shs 2−25: 3.50 × 10⁶ ng/m³; Ws1: 3.37 × 10⁶ ng/m³). The Rotliegende natural gas of the Woostorove gas field in Germany, having a Hg content of 3.00 × 10⁶ ng/m³, was considered the natural gas with the highest Hg content in the world (Iakucheni, 1984; Dai et al., 1989), but later, natural gas with a Hg content of up to 4.35 × 10⁶ ng/m³ was found in northern Germany (Zettlitzer, 1997; also see Figure 1.15). There are two reasons for the high or very high Hg content in natural gas: (a) During the activation period of the deep fracture zone, the inorganic Hg derived from the deep crust formed an Hg halo or single halo ring along the fracture zone, or accumulated in the fracture zone–related traps and formed high Hg content gas fields or oil and gas fields. This process is called Hg discharge action of the Earth, and Hg is related to mantle helium (Ozerova, 1981; Ozerova, 1986; Huang et al., 2008). Liu (2013) pointed out that both Well KS102 (with the highest Hg content) and Well AK1 (with very high Hg content in the Tarim Basin) also had high R values (³He/⁴He), which was further evidence that high Hg content in natural gas was related to mantle helium, and the high content of Hg and some mantle-derived helium might migrate to the crust through the South Tianshan and Kunlunshan discordogenic faults. (b) Based on statistics of Hg content in some coal found in the United States and China, Li et al. (2012a) concluded that coal could generate natural gas with an Hg content of 6550–14,077,670 ng/m³ by the mercury itself, and pointed out that the Hg in the natural gas of the Songliao Basin could not be of mantle origin. As shown in Table 1.7, Well Shs2−25 is very rich in Hg (3.50 × 10⁶ ng/m³) and has a R/Ra value of 1.7; i.e., it contains 20.7% mantle-derived helium. This shows that high Hg natural gas has the mark of mantle origin; meanwhile, the alkane gas has the negative carbon isotope series, also proving abiogenic origin.

Table 1.7

Geochemical Data of Natural Gas in the Xushen Gas Field of the Songliao Basin