Non-Bovine Milk and Milk Products

Non-Bovine Milk and Milk Products

Editors

Effie Tsakalidou

Konstantinos Papadimitriou

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Dedication

Copyright

List of Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1. Food Security and the Role of Local Communities in Non-cow Milk Production

1. Introduction

2. The Contribution of Non-cow Milk to Food Security

3. Non-cow Milk Farming Systems

4. Strengths and Weaknesses of Non-cow Milk

5. Conclusions

Chapter 2. Non-cow Milk Production: The Greenhouse-Gas Emissions and Climate Change

1. Introduction

2. Diversity of Non-cow Supply Chains and Production Systems

3. Choice of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Milk Production

4. Overview of Global Emissions

5. Analysis of GHG Emission From Specific Non-cow Milk Supply Chains

6. Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Non-cow Milk Production: The Heterogeneous Impact of Climate Change in Different Regions

7. Conclusions

Chapter 3. Husbandry Practices and Animal Health

1. Introduction

2. Husbandry Systems

3. Milking Procedures

4. Lactation and Dry Period

5. Weaning

6. Reproduction

7. Animal Welfare

8. Human–Animal Relationship

9. Conclusions

Chapter 4. Influence of Animal Health, Breed, and Diet on Non-cow Milk Composition

1. Introduction

2. Outline of the Major Features of Non-cow Milk-Producing Animals

3. Animal Health, Breed, Diet, and Environmental Effects

4. Mastitis

5. Physiological and Biochemical Basis for the Effects of Subclinical Mastitis and Late Lactation on Milk Yield and Quality

6. Concluding Remarks

Chapter 5. Composition and Properties of Non-cow Milk and Products

1. Introduction

2. Global Production and Geographical Distribution of Non-cow Milk

3. Gross Composition of Milk

4. Nitrogenous Compounds of Milk

5. Milk Carbohydrates and Oligosaccharides

6. Milk Lipids

7. Indigenous Milk Enzymes

8. Mineral Compounds of Milk

9. Milk Vitamins

10. Cheese and Fermented Milk Made from Non-cow Milk

11. Authenticity, Hazards, and Legislation

Chapter 6. The Microbiota of Non-cow Milk and Products

1. Introduction

2. Sheep and Goat Milk

3. Buffalo Milk

4. Camel Milk

5. Equine Milk

6. Yak Milk

7. Human Milk

Chapter 7. Existing Technologies in Non-cow Milk Processing and Traditional Non-cow Milk Products

1. Introduction

2. Existing Technologies for Non-cow Fermented Milk

3. Existing Technologies for Non-cow Milk Cheese

Chapter 8. Novel Technologies for Dairy Processing: Applications for Non-cow Milk

1. Introduction

2. Novel Technologies for Dairy Processing: Industrial Considerations

3. High-Pressure Processing

4. High-Pressure Homogenization of Milk

5. Ultrasound Processing

6. Treatment of Milk and Dairy Products With Pulsed Electric Fields

7. Conclusions

Chapter 9. Macro- and Micronutrients in Non-cow Milk and Products and Their Impact on Human Health

1. Introduction

2. Nutritional Status and Health

3. Non-cow Dairy Species

4. Nutrients in Milk of Different Species

5. Nutrients in Non-cow Dairy Products

6. Effects of Non-cow Milk on Human Health

7. Dairy Products From Non-cow Milk and Effects on Human Health

Conclusions

Index

Dedication

In the memory of Leonidas Louloudis, a constant source of inspiration.

Copyright

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List of Contributors

V. Alexandraki,     Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

E. Alichanidis,     Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

A. Angelopoulou,     Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

M.P. Arena,     University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

V. Capozzi,     University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

F. Fantuz,     Università degli Studi di Camerino, Camerino, Italy

B. Faye,     UMR SELMET, CIRAD-ES, Montpellier, France

D. Fiocco,     University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

T. Huppertz,     NIZO food research, Ede, The Netherlands

M. Kazou,     Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

G. Leitner,     Kimron Veterinary Institute, Bet Dagan, Israel

A.I. Martín-García,     Estación Experimental del Zaidín (CSIC), Granada, Spain

S. Mattiello,     Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy

U. Merin,     Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, Israel

G. Moatsou,     Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

M. Nuñez,     Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Madrid, Spain

P. Papademas,     Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus

K. Papadimitriou,     Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

A. Polychroniadou,     Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

P. Russo,     University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

E. Salimei,     Università degli Studi del Molise, Campobasso, Italy

N. Silanikove,     Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, Israel

G. Spano,     University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

E. Tsakalidou,     Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

D.R. Yáñez-Ruiz,     Estación Experimental del Zaidín (CSIC), Granada, Spain

Preface

Strictly speaking all mammals are dairy animals. However, only some of them have been domesticated. Domestication of dairy animals has mainly evolved on the basis of the regular production of a sufficient quantity of milk to cover human nutritional needs. The ability of dairy animals themselves to adapt to specific geographical areas and patterns—which shape climate conditions as well as the flora and fauna diversity of a region—has also determined the prevalence of certain breeds in different regions of the world. This, in turn, has determined the evolution of local pastoral systems and practices, given that livestock management is closely linked to the natural resources available in different regions.

The ease of transforming milk to dairy products, such as fermented milk, cheese, and butter, gradually became the foundation for local practices and skills and thus of local dairy culinary traditions in various regions around the world. It should be stressed, however, that these opportunities are often accompanied by the limitations of human skills, socioeconomic factors as well as religious beliefs. These limitations have historically been the parameters that have determined which dairy products have survived throughout time.

Although the dairy cow has been the predominant domesticated animal species for milk production, sheep, goat, water buffalo, yak, camel, and mare as well as other minor mammalian species have also been domesticated. These animals have been kept and bred for milk production not only in developed countries but also in regions around the world where the environment required special adaptation and for which many of the noncow mammals are better suited. As a result, cow milk dominates global milk production and represents 83% of the world’s total milk production.

In addition to cow milk, buffalo milk makes a substantial contribution at the global level, accounting for 13% of the world’s production. The contribution of milk from goats (2.6%), sheep (1.2%), and camels (0.4%) is limited at the global level. For other animal species, such as horses, donkeys, and yaks, no world-scale statistics are available but their contribution to global milk production is estimated to be less than 0.1%. Additionally, a marginal production of reindeer and llama milk is reported in the literature and even some wild species, such as zebra or eland, are described as potential dairy animals.

However, noncow milk is considered to have huge economic and social importance in specific regions where it can serve as a tool for the improvement of food and economic security and as well as to reduce poverty. On the other hand, industrialization of dairy production is increasing in many places, largely due to the growing demand for food. Some smallholders may be able to take advantage of these opportunities and operate as sustainable and profitable smallholder agricultural production systems. Whether large numbers of smallholders will be able to do this in a carbon-constrained global economy and in an environment characterized by a changing climate and by increased climatic variability will depend on many things, including improved regulations, implementation of social protection and strengthening of links to urban areas, and substantial investment in agriculture. Understanding how smallholder systems may evolve in the future is critical if economic and food security goals are to be achieved.

The significance of noncow milk is underlined by the fact that the International Dairy Federation organized, between 1985 and 2007, five successful symposia on sheep and goat milk. Moreover, two of the most recent ones, held in 2011 and 2015, expanded their thematology to other types of noncow milk, such as buffalo, camel, donkey, yak, etc.

The aim of this book is to give a compiled and renewed vision of the knowledge existing thus far on noncow milk as well as the emerging challenges including the (a) social and environmental aspects; (b) animal health, welfare, and nutrition; (c) quality, safety, and analysis of milk and dairy products; (d) existing and emerging technologies for processing and products; and (e) nutritional aspects of milk and dairy products. Thus the thematology of the book addresses a wide number of professional groups involved in the noncow milk sector, such as academia, milk producers, dairy industry, trade associations, and government and policy makers.

Acknowledgments

We thank all authors and coauthors for their sound contributions and excellent cooperation during the reviewing process. We also wish to acknowledge the valuable contribution of Andrea Dierna, Megan Ball, and Billie Jean Fernandez for helping us tackle all editorial and technical problems and for taking good care of the production.

Chapter 1

Food Security and the Role of Local Communities in Non-cow Milk Production

B. Faye     UMR SELMET, CIRAD-ES, Montpellier, France

Abstract

Cow is the dominant species for providing milk to humans, but other dairy species (eg, buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, yak, horse and donkey, reindeer, and occasionally lama) provide 15% of the world’s milk supply. Non-cow milk is mainly collected in low-input systems managed by local communities, contributing to the food security of unproductive areas such as desert, steppe, high mountains, swamps, or polar zones. The organoleptic properties and physico-chemical composition of non-cow milk and its potential health benefits could contribute to food security and environmental preservation. Non-cow milk production systems include all types of farming systems from extensive to traditional, with low input and high mobility, to highly intensive production processes with indoor milking units. Improvement of productivity for non-cow dairy species, better milking hygiene in local communities, and diversification of dairy products are among the most important challenges for this sector.

Keywords

Farming system; Food security; Milk processing; Milk productivity; Non-cow milk

1. Introduction

Among the 2000 species of mammals producing milk, only 10 are used regularly or exceptionally for providing milk to humans. Besides the cow, which provides 85% of the milk produced in the world (FAOstat, 2015), buffalo (10.7%), goat (2.4%), sheep (1.4%), and camel (0.4%) are the most important dairy animals. In spite of their regular use for milk production, there is no data regarding yak. Horse, donkey, reindeer, and lama (Skenneberg, 1984; Morin et al., 1995) are not commonly used and thus do not change the global statistics.

While the total quantity of non-cow milk (NCM) is a small part of the total quantity of milk consumed in the world, non-cow dairy species provided 110  million tons of milk in 2013 (FAOstat, 2015), notably in remotes areas. Thus the contribution of NCM to food security is important, especially since it is produced by households in low-input farming systems, and except for small ruminants, only in southern countries.

The objective of the present chapter is (i) to assess the importance of the non-cow dairy species and of the NCM in the food security, (ii) to provide short description of the farming systems producing NCM, and (iii) to discuss the role of small farmers in the production of NCM and its use in local, national, and international markets.

2. The Contribution of Non-cow Milk to Food Security

2.1. Quantitative Importance of Non-cow Milk

As a whole, NCM species provided 30.6  million tons of milk in 1961 (first available FAO statistics). Although it comprised a relatively low percentage of total milk available for human consumption, the growth of NCM is important (Faye and Konuspayeva, 2012a). In 2013 dairy cow production was double what it was in 1961 (×2.03), and NCM more than tripled (×3.64) 1961 data, with all non-cow species having higher growth than cow except sheep (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1

Total Milk Production (in Million Tons), Percentage of Species Contribution, and 2013 Index Compared to Index 100 in 1961 for Cow and Non-cow Milk

FAOstat, 2015.

NCM production growth is higher than human population growth; NCM species provided 10  L of milk for 1000 inhabitants in 1961 versus 16  L in 2013. Moreover, this contribution appears more significant when specific regions are considered. The percentage of NCM is high in Asia (34.4%) and in Africa (25.7%) but lower in other continents (Table 1.2). In some regions such as West Africa or South Asia, NCM represents almost 50% of produced milk (FAOstat, 2015).

The proportion of NCM appears higher in southern countries especially in Africa and Asia, but there is no clear evidence of a negative correlation between the percentage of NCM in the different countries and their gross domestic product/habitant (GDP/hab.) (Table 1.3). Although the highest percentage of milk produced by species other than cow (22.7  ±  28.3%) is observed on average in the poorest countries (GDP less than 1000  USD/hab), a significant percentage (2.5  ±  6.8%) is observed in intermediary countries (GDP 7500–15,000  USD/hab). Bangladesh (goat, buffalo, and sheep), Mali, Eritrea, Oman, and United Arab Emirates (sheep, camel, and goat), Swaziland, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, and Timor-Leste (goat) are among the countries with more than 75% of milk from non-cow species. Regarding the different species, only a negative relationship between the percentage of goat milk and GDP/hab is observed, confirming the role of the goat as the dairy cow of the poor (French proverb).

Thus in spite of the lack of a clear relationship between the importance of NCM and the wealth of a country, the contribution to food security is important and the use of species other than cow to provide milk should be considered not only for economic reasons, but also for cultural reasons.

2.2. Qualitative Importance of Non-cow Milk

NCM is not only a substitute for cow milk—it is a means for people living in specific ecosystems (eg, deserts, high mountains, swamp areas) to have access to milk in places where dairy cow farming is problematic. Furthermore, this type of milk is linked to social habits and is often a part of cultural identity. For example, fermented horse milk (koumiss) in Central Asia, butter yak in the Tibetan plateau, or camel milk for Bedouins are all examples of cultural uses of NCM.

Table 1.2

Total Milk Production (in Tons) Per Species and Percentage of NCM in the Different Continents and Regions

Table 1.3

Mean Contribution of NCM According to Level of GDP/hab (in USD)

a,b Means in column with a different letter in superscript differ (P  <  0.05).

NCM chemical compositions are variable and are noted for their richness or lack of a specific component such as high vitamin C content in camel milk or lack of β-lactoglobuline in horse milk (Malacarne et al., 2002; Al Haj and Al Kanhal, 2010).

Buffalo milk contains higher quantities of proteins, minerals (especially calcium), and fat than cow milk (Gaucheron, 2011). Moreover, the curd for cheese processing is firmer, the buffer power is more important in the acidification process, and the butter yield is higher, all of which contribute to the success of cheese products such as mozzarella.

Goat milk is also noted for its composition of fatty acids (it contains more short-chain and middle-chain fatty acids) and has favorable properties for cheese processing. It is also considered to have fewer allergens and may replace human milk better than cow milk (Kapila et al., 2013).

Ewe milk is rich in proteins, minerals, and lipids; it contains high amounts of calcium, phosphate, and magnesium, and the lipid part contains high middle-chain fatty acids. Due to its richness, ewe milk provides high cheese-making yield (Zhang et al., 2006).

Horse and donkey milk are regarded as similar to human milk (Doreau, 1991). They are low in fat and relatively poor in proteins, especially in caseins and calcium, but contain a larger proportion of lysozyme and lactoferrin than human milk. The fat globules are small, and the fat matter contains a high proportion of free fatty acids and phospholipids. The main characteristic of the fat component is its richness in polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acid). The lactose proportion is high and its consumption is mainly achieved in fermented form. It is regarded as highly digestible and has many medicinal qualities.

Camel milk is mainly characterized by a lack of β-lactoglobuline (explaining its hypo-allergic properties), the presence of whey acidic protein, high concentration of non-protein nitrogen, richness in iron and sometimes in chloride when the animals graze halophytes, its exceptional richness in vitamin C, and high bioactivity of its lactoferrin. Lama milk contains a high proportion of non-protein nitrogen (Riek and Gerken, 2006).

Yak milk with its important protein and lipid proportion appears as a thick liquid; it is highly valued for making butter and traditional cheese. Reindeer milk is also particularly rich in protein and fat matter; the fat globules form a stable emulsion, and the extraction of the fat matter is easier than for other milk (Gjøstein et al., 2004).

Thus the differences observed between these milks, especially in their fine composition (ie, type of caseins, whey proteins, fatty acid composition, oligosaccharides, vitamins, trace elements) may explain their different production processes and uses by consumers. These specifics determine their use in a wide variety of products. In Mongolia, for example, yak, horse, and camel milk provide more than 500 types of dairy products (Dugdill and Tsetsgee, 2006).

Interest in NCM is not limited to its physico-chemical composition. It also has specific nutritional features, technological advantages, or even (true or expected) medicinal virtues (eg, horse, donkey, camel, and lama milk) (Claeys et al., 2014).

2.3. Food Security in Remote Areas

While cow is present in almost all ecosystems of the earth, non-cow dairy species are linked to highly specific ecosystems, in most cases marked by geographical or climatic constraints such as aridity (desert areas), high altitude (mountains), deep cold (polar zones), or highly humid places (swamp areas). In addition, non-cattle dairy species are often characteristic of the poorest farming systems.

Thus dairy goats are widely distributed in the poorest countries where they contribute to milk consumption in small farming units (eg, Africa, especially in Sudan and Ethiopia, Southern Asia). The geographical distribution of sheep milk is different than for goat milk because it is mainly produced around a large Mediterranean basin (including the Middle East), where it is traditionally produced (ie, in semi-arid places where cow milk production is more difficult and requires higher investment). To a lesser extent, the use of sheep milk is also becoming more prevalent in China (FAOstat, 2015).

Buffalo is the dairy animal of the paddy field in the humid tropics of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh (buffalo provide 50% of the milk produced in this area) and Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, South China). Buffalo is also the dairy animal in some parts of Europe (Italy, Bulgaria), Egypt, and Brazil (eg, Marajo Island on the Amazon River) (Moioli, 1996). The advantage of buffalo, beyond the organoleptic quality of its milk, is its capacity to produce milk with poor nutritive forage, its placidity, disease resistance, and longevity, which facilitate its rearing in less favorable regions of Southern Asia (Zia-Hul-Hassan et al., 2011).

Camel milk is the white gold of the desert (Wernery, 2006). As the best adapted domestic animal to arid lands, camel milk production is closely linked to the desert area of the old world from Mauritania to Mongolia. Even in relative rich countries like Saudi Arabia, more than 70% of camel milk is consumed by the Bedouins in the desert (Faye et al., 2014), providing animal proteins in places where access to other proteins is difficult. In pastoralist households, camel milk makes up to 70% of dietary calories (Homewood, 2008).

Fermented horse milk is popular in the remote places of steppe areas of Central Asia (eg, former Asian Soviet republics, Mongolia, Russia), where it is called koumiss or Airag (Konuspayeva and Faye, 2011). The consumption per inhabitant is high (more than 1  L/day), contributing highly to the food security of the small farmers in this area. On the other hand, the use of donkey milk is uncommon; it is mainly produced for cosmetic purposes or as a substitute for human milk in some alternative European farms (Jirillo et al., 2010).

The yak is the dairy animal of the Tibetan plateau (eg, China, Kirgizstan, Nepal, Bhutan) where the rancid yak’s butter is a major part of the human diet (eg, po cha, tea mixed with rancid yak butter and tsampa, grilled barley with butter), and is a major source of income for Tibetan herders (Dong et al., 2007). Reindeer is the only source of milk for Laplander populations in northern Scandinavia (eg, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Kola Peninsula in Russia) where no other dairy animals can survive in such cold conditions (Holand et al., 2002). Lama milk production is limited to the high mountains of Latin America (eg, Peru, Equator, Bolivia). During Inca civilization, it was the only source of milk for local populations. Today, production for human consumption is uncommon.

Thus NCM milk contributes to the food security in many remote areas of the world, sometimes complementary to cow milk, but in most cases it is an exclusive source of milk and dairy products. The percentage of dairy animals among the total population is an indicator of the dairy vocation of the different species. It is remarkable to observe that this percentage is higher for all the species (except sheep, which are mainly used for meat production in the world) than for cows. Moreover, except for goat, the proportion of dairy animals has significantly increased since 1961 (Fig. 1.1). Thus on average, the contribution of non-cattle dairy animals to food security is increasing, with more animals being used for milk production.

Figure 1.1  Proportion of dairy animals (in %) among buffalo, camel, cow, goat, and sheep population in 1961 and 2013. Calculated from FAOstat.

3. Non-cow Milk Farming Systems

All types of non-cattle dairy farming systems from extensive and traditional (low input and high mobility) to highly intensive (eg, in-door systems including milk processing units on the farm) are found in the world. However, their distribution among the different ecosystems varies according to species.

3.1. Dairy Buffalo Farming Systems

Dairy buffalo farming systems are found in humid areas in Asia or along rivers (eg, Nile, Pô, Amazon) where the high-yield dairy breed has been selected, like the Nili-Ravi or Murrah in India and Pakistan (Bilal et al., 2006) or the Mediterranean in Italy (Tufarelli et al., 2008). In spite of the lack of mobility, rearing techniques are mainly traditional (ie, no feeding supplementation, natural reproduction, manual milking, etc.). There are usually a small number of animals on small farms, generally used for several purposes (eg, milk, manure, plowing in paddy lands, etc.). However, modern units with a larger number of animals and supplementary feeding are available in Italy, India, and Pakistan. Buffalo milk is often processed into butter, ghee, and cheese. Mozzarella (Italy) and traditional fermented products such as lassi or dahi (India, Pakistan) are among the well-known buffalo dairy products of the area.

3.2. Goat- and Sheep-Farming Systems

Although goat and sheep are often reared together in the tropics, the production systems in the dairy sector are commonly separated. Goat is often raised in the remote areas of farms. For example, in the highlands of Ethiopia, the sheep graze in the nutritive grasslands of the plateau, and goats share the bushes growing in the slopes of the mountains with donkeys (Faye, 1994). In the tropics, goat milk is mainly consumed by poor families and traditionally managed. Cheese production is not common, except in Europe and especially in France. The processing of goat milk commonly occurs on farms with direct marketing. However, in the specialized dairy goat sector, which uses famous dairy breeds (Saanen, Alpine), cheese production can occur within a powerful organized channel. Cross-breeding is implemented between breeds with high dairy potential (eg, Anglo-Nubian or Toggenburg) and local breeds to improve dairy production in the tropics with variable success (Ruvuna et al., 1995; Ogola and Kosgey, 2012).

Sheep milk is mainly produced by selected dairy breeds (eg, Lacaune in France, Sardinia in Italy, Awassi in Near-East) in semi-arid lands around the Mediterranean and in Western Asia under traditional management but with a good link to the market because of cheese production. Some product channels (eg, roquefort in France, manchego in Spain, or feta in Greece) are well organized and linked to more intensified farming systems (with milking machines, food supplementation, three lambing in 2  years, etc.). Some sheep-farming systems are mobile and transhumance is common in South Europe (Boyazoglu and Morand-Fehr, 2001).

Thus sheep and goat milk, which are easily transformed to cheese, may help to ensure an important added value for farmers, especially as the processing in farms is a common practice (Belanger, 2005). Since many of these cheese products have been given the Protected Designation of Origin strong growth on the local and national market is expected (Di Trana et al., 2015).

3.3. Dairy Camel-Farming Systems

As the main dairy animal in desert lands, the camel is usually raised in farming systems based on the mobility of the herds (nomadic or transhumant) under extensive management. Living in remote places, camel milk producers are often far from consumption basins and consequently camel milk is mainly self-consumed or processed into fermented mil, (eg, in Central Asia) (Konuspayeva and Faye, 2011). Camel milk is traditionally not sold. Regarded as a gift from God it is widely offered to hosts or distributed to poor families. However, in the Gulf countries, intensive production in high-scale modernized units has been implemented including the use of milking machines, biotechnology of reproduction, improved diet, and even the use of industrial milk-processing units (Faye et al., 2002; Nagy and Juhasz, 2015). To improve milk productivity of the double-humped camel in Kazakhstan, hybridization between dromedary and Bactrian camel is regularly performed (Faye and Konuspayeva, 2012b). Between these two extreme systems, many small farmers are settling at the periphery of cities with the productive part of the herds, while the non-lactating camels remain in pastoral areas. The proximity of the camel herds to the consumption basin is contributing to the development of peri-urban systems with different levels of intensification. The implementation of small or semi-industrial dairy factories strongly encourages the development of the peri-urban farm systems (Faye et al., 2003).

3.4. Equine-Farming Systems

Among the equines, donkey milk is mainly produced on small-scale European farms with diversified production, and horse milk is produced in formerly collectivized farms at the Soviet era, ie, in relatively large-scale units more or less modernized (eg, milking machines, food supplementation) and more or less linked to traditional markets (bazaar) or modern supermarkets. However, since the independence of the former Soviet Republics, transhumance of dairy horses has increased. As in the case of camel, horse milk is often processed in farms using traditional techniques (Konuspayeva and Faye, 2011). However, modernization of koumiss production on a semi-industrial scale is in progress (ie, selection of lactic bacteria, steered fermentation, prolonged shelf-life) in order to meet the expectations of young consumers in big cities.

3.5. Yak-Farming Systems

Farming systems for yak usually follow a traditional pattern dictated by the climate and seasons, by the topography of the land, and by social and cultural influences. Methods of keeping yak vary from primitive, where animals graze freely in pastures, to the technologically advanced. In summer and autumn, yaks are on pastures in high mountains and the herdsmen live in campsites, which move frequently. In winter and early spring the herds graze at lower elevations close to the permanent villages of the herders and their families (Dong et al., 1999). Yak milk is used for butter but also for traditional cheese, especially in Tibet and Mongolia, where a wide variety of products exist (eg, öröm, eezgii, byaslag, tarag, aarul). Yak milk can also be consumed as alcohol after fermentation and distillation (arkhii). In China, where 90% of the yak population lives, a modernized channel is emerging. Hybridization with cow (hybrids called chauri, dzom, or hainag according to the country) is common in order to increase the dairy yield and to rear the animals at lower altitude (Zhang, 2000).

3.6. Other Species

Reindeer-farming systems in the cold lands of Northern Eurasia are based on seasonal migration. After a decrease of reindeer milking due to the competition with cow milk, which became more commonly available in the 1960s, new interest emerged in the mid-1990s, which led to rapid modernization of reindeer dairy farming including the use of milking machines (Holand et al., 2002).

Lama-farming systems, where milk is still used, are limited to very remote places of the high mountains in South America, where accessibility to cattle milk is limited. The milking of lama is uncommon, since it is difficult and is only consumed in very few Andin communities. In spite of the growing interest in lama milk in Western countries for its so-called medicinal qualities, there is really no developed market for it.

4. Strengths and Weaknesses of Non-cow Milk

Milk from species other than cattle has four main advantages: (i) it is produced often in remotes areas with very well-adapted species to specific ecosystems; (ii) it is produced mainly in low-input farming systems; (iii) it contributes both to poverty alleviation and to international market integration; and (iv) some NCM species are multi-purpose animals, and can be used for working, carrying, and riding (eg, camel, buffalo, yak, mare, and donkey), contributing to the diversification of income.

4.1. The Added Value of Non-cow Milk for Local Communities

Non-cattle dairy species are able to live in many of the remote places of the planet. Thus the semi-arid lands around the Mediterranean (sheep milk), the low-quality lands in Africa (goat milk), the steppe zones of Central Asia (mare milk), the arid (camel milk) or polar areas (reindeer milk), the wet tropical zones (buffalo milk), and the high-mountain areas (yak and lama milk) are able to provide, due to those well-adapted species and in spite of the harsh conditions in their environment, milk for humans, ensuring the diversification of their sources of proteins. Due to the presence of these various dairy species, the quasi-universality of human milk consumption can be confirmed, except for a limited number of ethnic people (eg, Indian in Amazonia, Pygmies of the equatorial forest, Aboriginals of Australia, Eskimos). Non-cattle species are the best adapted dairy animals for a given ecosystem, since they can maintain rural life in even the most hostile areas. Without camels, what species will produce milk in the desert?

Non-cattle species are able to better use low-quality forage characteristic of their marginal environments. Water buffalo show a higher digestion coefficient and feed conversion than cattle (Lapitan et al., 2004). Camel and lama better digest the poor-quality grass (Jouany, 2000). The equine species are more efficient for urea recycling and are able to use rangelands with poor nutritive values (Duncan et al., 1990). Reindeer and yak are able to graze on lichens and straw, respectively, which have very little nutritive quality. Thus non-cattle species can provide milk to humans living in unproductive ecosystems.

These specific ecosystems are often characterized by the cohabitation of different animal species in the same rangelands. For example, in African arid lands farmers are rarely specialized and rear small ruminants with camel, donkey, and sometimes cattle. These species together, each with its own feeding behavior and dietary preference, use the natural resources in a complementary way without competing: the camels eat from the trees they can reach with their long necks, and they move long distances; the goat spend time in bush and eat from the lower parts of the trees; sheep and cattle are grazers and also less mobile than camel, and donkeys make use low-quality forage. Moreover, because the number and type of plant species selected by free-ranging animals is highly variable, the risk of overgrazing is reduced. In the arid lands of the Horn of Africa, it was reported that goats ingest 20 to 26 different forage species (according to season), camels between 18 and 21, sheep 13 to 14, cows 6 to 8, and donkeys 6 to 7 (Rutagwenda et al., 1990).

As a consequence of their ability to produce milk in neglected lands, non-cow dairy species are often reared in low-input farming systems managed by local communities (eg, small ruminant and/or camel-farming systems in Eastern Africa and Central Asia, small-scale buffalo farms in Southern Asia, small goat farms in Western Africa, yak, or lama herds in highland communities in Tibet or Andin countries, traditional sheep farms in Southern Europe, extensive goat farms in Brazilian northeastern states). Because NCM is widely self-consumed by small farmers, its contribution to food security is significant. When this milk is able to reach the local or even national market, it can contribute to regular income for poor families. With its place in the diversification of farming activities and by the potential added value of its processed products (eg, cheese, fermented milk), NCM can contribute to the social integration of small farmers and to poverty alleviation (Faye, 2001). Moreover, NCM production is often in the hands of women, especially when it is processed. Thus it is a powerful means of ensuring income. Traditionally milk selling is done by women. Market integration, with its possibility of regular income, could be a risk for ending the women power on the milk as it was observed for cow milk in Sahelian countries (Seifu, 2007).

NCM is its low competitiveness toward milk production coming from exporting countries like the cow milk powder from the European Union or the United States to the Western African countries. Except small ruminants’ involved in an international market within Western countries, NCM is not produced in large quantities by traditional milk exporting countries. Regarding buffalo milk produced in Italy for cheese making, the consumption of mozzarella D.O.P. is about 82% for the Italian market, 18% for the export also within Western countries: Germany (20% of the export), France (20%), USA (18%), and UK (12%) (Borghese, 2004). There is also the potential for exporting specific milk products to Western countries where exotic products are sought for dietetic reasons. This is the case for camel milk, which has recently been exported from the Emirates to the European Union (Nagy et al., 2014). However, most authorization procedures are long and difficult, which often results in failure, as was the case for the export of camel milk cheese from Mauritania (Jones-Abeiderrhamane, 2013).

However, non-cow dairy products could reach international markets as cosmetic products, contributing to the development of specific commodity channels. Some companies have developed cosmetic product lines based on donkey, horse, camel, and goat milk. NCM could also support local cultural identities (eg, koumiss, shubat), or be recognized for its medicinal qualities (eg, raw and fermented camel milk, horse milk), creating niche productions with high added value for producers (Konuspayeva and Faye, 2011).

4.2. The Challenges of Non-cow Milk for Future Development

NCM producers must address the following for future development: (i) improvement of milk productivity, which is generally very low compared to cow milk; (ii) better integration to market; and (iii) diversification of milk products.

The dairy yield of non-cow species is on average lower than for cow (Fig. 1.2), even when considering the weight of the animal. The yield is on average 590  L/100  kg live weight/year (LW/y) for cow compared to 350  kg (buffalo), 225  kg (goat), and 115  kg (camel and sheep). However, there is potential, and the increase of milk productivity for the last 50  years appears higher for non-cow species than for cow (Fig. 1.3). According to the literature, buffalo milk production could reach 4000  L per lactation (Zicarelli, 2004). In camel, selected breeds in Saudi Arabia could reach a maximum of 6000  L/lactation (Musaad et al., 2013). The dairy yield of a lactating mare could reach more than 3000  L for 180  days of lactation, while for donkey it is 1000  L. In Russia, higher yield for heavy horses was reported at up to 4122  L/lactation (Kalashnikov, 2002). The best goat and sheep producers could provide up to 1.500 and 800  L/lactation, respectively. In intensive production systems, yak could produce up to 1000  L/lactation (Huang, 2000).

To improve the milk productivity of non-cow species and consequently the income of producers, genetic selection for boosting milk potential and improvement of feeding systems are necessary. Access of NCM to national or international markets is possible by acting on the conditions of milk collection (in terms of quality) in the communities and by the implementation of specific dairy plants able to process NCM, as was achieved for camel milk in Mauritania (Abeiderrahmane, 1997). Improving production and processing is an important part of producing non-cow dairy products and contributing to the food security of local communities. For example, studies on cheese-making with camel milk (Konuspayeva et al., 2014) or on fermentation processes with specific strains for koumiss or shubat (Baubekova et al., 2015) are opportunities to propose innovative products for local, national, or international markets.

Figure 1.2  Milk productivity (in l/animal/year) of the different dairy species.

Nevertheless, as NCM is principally produced in developing countries (ie, camel, yak, buffalo, lama) or studied by scientific communities formerly isolated from the international community (ie, horse, reindeer), little information is available on their characteristics compared to cow milk. In particular, there is a lack of studies regarding the role of NCM in the diet of the communities and on the value chain of the dairy products in developing countries.

New farming systems are emerging in different countries. These new systems are proposing products