The Moody Handbook of Theology

© 1989, 2008, 2014 by

PAUL ENNS

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews.

All Scripture quotations are taken from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. (www.Lockman.org)

Editors: Jim Vincent, Allan Sholes

Cover Design: Paetzold Design

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Interior Design: Ragont Design

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Enns, Paul I.

      The moody handbook of theology / by Paul Enns.— Rev. and expanded.

         p. cm.

      Includes bibliographical references and index.

      ISBN 978-0-8024-1198-3

      1. Theology—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Fundamentalism—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Dispensationalism—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Evangelicalism—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.

BR118.E67 2008

230’.04624—dc22

2007045189

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This book is dedicated to my beloved wife, Helen, with whom I enjoyed forty-five honeymoon years, a selfless wife and mother, with whom the Lord united me in heart and soul. She put Christ and her family first, led both of our sons to faith in Christ, and ministered to me in a profound way. I never got over the thrill of being married to Helen. I eagerly look forward to our reunion in heaven.

And to Terry and Jeremy, my sons, who are walking with the Lord, serving Him, and raising their children in the nurture and admonition of the Lord. My wife and sons have been the members of Kitchen Table Theology 101, with whom I have shared many of these doctrines.

Index of Charts

Foreword

Preface to the Third Edition

Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the First Edition

PART 1: BIBLICAL THEOLOGY

1. Introduction to Biblical Theology

2. Introduction to Old Testament Theology

3. Theology of the Edenic Era

4. Theology of the Noahic Era

5. Theology of the Patriarchal Era

6. Theology of the Mosaic Era

7. Theology of the Monarchical Era

8. Theology of the Prophetic Era

9. Introduction to New Testament Theology

10. Theology of the Synoptics

11. Theology of Acts

12. Theology of James

13. Theology of Paul

14. Theology of Hebrews

15. Theologies of Peter and Jude

16. Theology of John

PART 2: SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY

17. Introduction to Systematic Theology

18. Bibliology: Doctrine of the Bible

19. Theology Proper: Doctrine of God

20. Christology: Doctrine of Christ

21. Pneumatology: Doctrine of the Holy Spirit

22. Angelology: Doctrines of Angels, Satan, and Demons

23. Anthropology and Hamartiology: Doctrines of Man and Sin

24. Soteriology: Doctrine of Salvation

25. Ecclesiology: Doctrine of the Church

26. Eschatology: Doctrine of Last Things

PART 3: HISTORICAL THEOLOGY

27. Introduction to Historical Theology

28. Ancient Theology

29. Medieval Theology

30. Reformation Theology

31. Modern Theology

PART 4: DOGMATIC THEOLOGY

32. Introduction to Dogmatic Theology

33. Calvinistic Theology

34. Arminian Theology

35. Covenant Theology

36. Dispensational Theology

37. Dogmatic Roman Catholic Theology

PART 5: CONTEMPORARY THEOLOGY

38. Introduction to Contemporary Theology

39. Liberal Theology

40. Neoorthodox Theology

41. Radical Theologies

42. Historicist Theologies

43. Socialist Theologies

44. Catholic Theology

45. Conservative Theology

46. Evangelical Feminism

47. Charismatic Theology

48. The Emerging Church

49. Postmodern Theology

50. Post-Evangelical Theology

51. Reformed Theology

Epilogue

Excerpt from The Moody Bible Commentary

Glossary

Index of Persons

Index of Subjects

Index of Scripture

Relationship of Biblical Theology to Other Disciplines

Sequence of Biblical Theology

Contrasts Between Biblical and Systematic Theologies

The Kingdom: Unifying Theme of Old Testament Theology

Covenant Framework of Old Testament Theology

The Suzerainty-Vassal Treaty Format of the Mosaic Covenant in Exodus 19

Zechariah’s Visions

Comparing the Gospels: Differences and Similarities

Similar Apostolic Miracles

Chronology of Paul’s Life

The Epistles of Paul

Types of Divine Revelation

The Word of God: Two Living Revelations

The Attributes of God: Varieties of Categorization

Ancient Diagram of the Holy Trinity

Order of the Decrees

Old Testament Prophecies of Christ

Fulfilled Prophecies Concerning Christ

Words of Christ in the Gospels

Jesus’ Works of God

Millennial Significance of Christ’s Miracles

Selected Miracles in John’s Gospel

Some Masculine Pronouns for the Holy Spirit

Titles of the Holy Spirit

Attributes of the Triune God

Oil as a Type of the Spirit

God-Breathed Creations

Dual Sections of Biblical Authority (2 Peter 3:2)

Parallel Judgments: The Flood and the Tribulation

Comparison of Natural and Spiritual Abilities

Relationships of Foundational Gifts

Names of Satan

Classifications of Angels

Various Views of Man’s Composition

Views of the Imputation of Sin

Theories of the Atonement

Contrasts of the Two Births

Forms of Church Government

Views on the Lord’s Supper

Views Concerning Last Things

Perversions of the Doctrine of Christ

Pelagian and Augustinian Views of Sin

Spiritual Effects of Medieval Sacraments

Reformation Views of the Atonement

Reformers’ Views on the Church and Ordinances

Theology of the Reformers

Theological Views in the Modern Church

Five Points of Calvinism

Calvinism and Arminianism Contrasted

Arminian Doctrine (The Remonstrance)

Concepts of Covenant Theology

Representative Dispensational Schemes

The Seven Roman Catholic Sacraments

Liberal Theology

Some Neoorthodox Viewpoints

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EVERY CHRISTIAN NEEDS to have a sound, true, biblical understanding of God and His truth, and we must never stop growing in our pursuit of that goal. The writer of Hebrews chided his readers because they had stalled at the very basics: You have become dull of hearing, he told them in Hebrews 5:11. They needed to reboot, to start learning and growing again—not only for their own sakes, but because it is every Christian’s duty to be a discipler of others.

By this time you ought to be teachers, he said. But you need again someone to teach you again the elementary principles of the oracles of God (v. 12). They needed to move beyond simple basics and gain a grown-up understanding of the Christian faith. They were stuck at the stage of needing to be fed milk, when they should have moved on long ago to more solid things. Their spiritual growth had been stunted by their own apathy, inattention, lethargy, or whatever. Now they could not comprehend the more substantial truths they desperately needed to learn, because solid food is for the mature, for those who have their powers of discernment trained by constant practice to distinguish good from evil (v. 14 ENGLISH STANDARD VERSION).

That passage underscores a point that ought to be fairly obvious: someone who is unskilled in doctrine cannot possibly be a capable teacher. We must be learners before we can be instructors. You can’t disciple others if you yourself are not a true disciple. And since every Christian is called to be a disciple-maker, none of us is exempt from the duty of cultivating a mature, biblically informed understanding of sound Christian doctrine.

True spiritual growth involves increasing in grace and knowledge (2 Peter 3:18). Take sound doctrine out of the mix, and whatever religious activity remains is a mere pretense. In fact, religious fervor without sound doctrine is spiritually deadly.

Pharisaical religion is the classic biblical example of that. People sometimes wrongly portray the Pharisees as overly concerned about sound doctrine—as if the very heart of their error was that they were so particular about their precise theology that they became cold and unfeeling. But their error was exactly the opposite. It was zeal without knowledge (Romans 10:2–3). Their abandonment of sound doctrine led them into legalistic self-righteousness. Others who abandon sound doctrine sometimes veer off in the opposite direction, turning the grace of God into licentiousness. Both errors are as deadly as the rankest pagan superstition. Sound doctrine is absolutely essential to healthy Christian living.

Too many evangelicals in our generation take a blithely superficial approach to theology. Doctrinal precision is often frivolously dismissed as a pedantic concern that somehow interferes with unity in the church or peace of mind in the individual. Novelty, human cleverness, and political correctness are given preference over fidelity to the Bible. Sentimentality and style seem to outweigh the authority of Scripture in the minds of some, including many church leaders. The church in our generation simply does not have the same commitment to sound doctrine that characterized the Reformers and their Puritan heirs. As a result, it is rare to find a good book on Bible doctrine written with lay readers in mind.

That’s why I am excited about this edition of The Moody Handbook of Theology, by Paul Enns. It is a wonderfully thorough, eminently readable, richly informative study of Christian theology. Whether you are a new believer or an accomplished seminary professor, I’m certain you will find this book an indispensable resource. Dr. Enns himself is someone who has never stopped growing and learning.

This new edition of his classic work is the finest yet. It’s a wonderful remedy for the apathy and superficiality of the present age, and a helpful companion for the long journey toward that mature understanding of truth that Scripture urges us to pursue.

May you gain fresh insight, a passion for biblical truth, and an appetite for more understanding as you read.

JOHN MACARTHUR

Pastor, Grace Community Church, Sun Valley, California

Author, The MacArthur New Testament Commentary

TWENTY-FIVE YEARS have passed since the initial publication of The Moody Handbook of Theology. Theological issues continue to prevail. New views of theology surface. People may begin with foundational theology but then move it to a different level.

That is why this 25th anniversary edition appears: not to celebrate the book’s ongoing success in print (and now electronic format), but to survey and offer updates in the field of theology. This third edition includes developments in three areas: postmodern theology, post-evangelical theology, and Reformed theology. The chapter on Reformed theology arguably should have been included in the first edition (although the major aspects that make up Reformed theology were included in the discussion of Calvinistic theology and covenant theology in the original edition). The new chapter will answer the question, How is Reformed theology different from Calvinism?

As chapter 51 will note, Reformed theology includes the five points of Calvinism but it also includes covenant theology, which is distinguished from dispensational theology. Dispensationalism distinguishes between Israel and the church, thereby recognizing two people of God. Covenant theology recognizes one people of God, whereby the church replaces Israel and fulfills the promises made to Israel in the present church age. This is also referred to as realized eschatology. Covenant theology—and thereby Reformed theology—does not see a distinct future for Israel. The church replaces Israel and is recognized as the New Israel. Reformed theology also teaches that the millennial prophecies are fulfilled in the present church age. In that sense they see the present age as the kingdom age. The coming of Christ has inaugurated the kingdom. However, there are differences within Reformed theology. Some hold to an already not yet aspect of the kingdom that although the kingdom has been inaugurated in this present age, the kingdom will also be inaugurated in the future age.

One aspect of evangelicalism has also taken on a new image. Neo-evangelicalism and post-evangelicalism have moved evangelicalism in a different direction, having been impacted by culture and particularly late twentieth-century postmodernism. Simply stated, post-evangelicalism is broader theologically than evangelicalism. Post-evangelicals accept higher critical views of Scripture, and no longer hold to the historic view of inspiration and inerrancy. They do not hold to the historicity of the early chapters of Genesis, suggesting they contain mythological notions. The result is that they question Jesus’ teachings, inferring He accommodated Himself to the culture.

These are serious issues. If the historicity of the Bible is questioned, what can be trusted? If the historicity of the Bible is not reliable, what doctrines can be affirmed? Post-evangelicalism will be explored in depth in chapter 50.

Postmodern theology and the emerging (or emergent) church overlap in their beliefs. The similarity between the two as well as their distinctives will be detailed in chapter 49. The term postmodern should be understood as identifying the post-Christian. Those who are post-Christian do not believe in absolute truth; they see truth claims as relative. They reject absolute truth; truth is subjective and relative, hence, they deny the inspiration and inerrancy of Scripture. They also see the mission of the church as engaging the culture, thereby, for example, denying that homosexuality is immoral. Ultimately, postmoderns embrace religious pluralism.

This third edition also expands the articles on the lordship/nonlordship issue within soteriology and the reality of hell (in chapters 24 and 26, respectively).

As noted in the Preface to the First Edition, the bibliography For Further Study that ends each chapter lists sources for research on particular topics, using asterisks. A single asterisk (*) indicates a source for the beginning student, generally brief books, or a more advanced title cited because of its major importance. More demanding studies are normally designated by two asterisks (**).

Ultimately, it is important to remember that the inspiration and authority of Scripture is foundational to all doctrinal beliefs (2 Tim. 3:16; 2 Peter 1:21). Rejection of inerrancy will inevitably lead to theological error. An examination of Jesus’ view of Scripture is a strong reminder that He held to the inspiration of the very words of Scripture and He is the example we must follow to affirm our doctrinal beliefs (cf. Matt. 5:17–18; Luke 24:44; John 10:35).

SINCE THE INITIAL PUBLICATION of The Moody Handbook of Theology in 1989, a number of theological issues have arisen that need to be addressed—and questions that need to be asked.

Consider the charismatic movement. Of course, it existed prior to the first edition of this book, but it has continued to gain momentum and has also expressed itself in prosperity theology, a position that not all charismatics accept. Does God want His people to be healthy and wealthy?

Openness theology is posing a different view of God. Does God know all aspects of the future? Does He know the decisions we will make before we make them? How does that affect our freedom? These are the considerations of openness theology.

Developing rapidly on the cultural scene is the emerging (or emergent) church. There is considerable latitude in the theological positions that differing emergent leaders hold, but their focus is similar: They wish to reach and influence our postmodern culture. Are there dangers involved in the movement? What are the theological positions of their leaders? What are the methodology and focus?

Other issues continue to surface. The feminist issue is growing increasingly vocal. What does the Bible teach about the role of women in the home and in the church?

Dominion theology seeks to promote Christian domination in the public arena. What are the biblical parameters? Replacement theology reflects an aspect of covenant theology that maintains the church has replaced Israel. Does Israel have a future in God’s program? That question, in fact, reflects on dispensationalism. A relatively recent development within dispensationalism has been progressive dispensationalism, which also raises the question: what are the distinctions between Israel and the church? When does Christ’s rule begin—is He ruling now, as amillennialists state, or is His rule restricted to the future, as classic dispensationalists hold? Or is He ruling, in some sense, now and not yet, as some progressive dispensationalists maintain?

I have made additions to chapters on other subjects as well and expanded the bibliographic listings, which I trust will be of help to the reader.

Let’s keep one thing in perspective: While new emphases surface in theology, true doctrine does not change. Perhaps we need a strong reminder of God’s sovereignty, majesty, and holiness while we live in this sinful world. Much of our culture seems to devalue God’s sovereignty and majesty and to elevate humanity and freedom. Yet, as most conservative biblicists would agree, the Lord will consummate this age according to His sovereign plan with the triumphant return of Jesus Christ and the establishment of His kingdom (Matt. 25:31).

In the publication of this new edition of The Moody Handbook of Theology I wish to thank Greg Thornton, vice president and publisher, Moody Publishers, for his constant encouragement and his vision. It is a blessing to work together with him. Thanks also to Allan Sholes, who worked with me in editing the expansion and update. It has been a pleasure to work with him.

I have been writing this material with a heavy heart. My beloved wife, Helen, with whom I enjoyed forty-five honeymoon years, went home to heaven suddenly on January 31, 2005. We were truly one, and life is difficult without her. Yet Helen’s departure has caused me to focus on heaven, and that focus is depicted in the additional material on heaven. My sincere thanks for the encouragement I have received from Dr. Erwin Lutzer, both in person and through his wonderful book One Minute after You Die. Thanks also to Randy Alcorn for his supreme contribution to the subject in his book Heaven. The church family at Idlewild Baptist Church, with senior pastor, Dr. Ken Whitten, has been loving and comforting to me during this time—everything a church was meant to be.

During this difficult time I also wish to thank my son and daughter-in-law, Jeremy and Kim, and their children, who live nearby and have been a great encouragement and comfort to me. To my son Terry and his family in Texas, I also thank them for their support.

Perhaps the constantly changing scene on theological issues is a reminder that a better day is coming and that we should live anticipating that glorious day when Christ returns in triumph to establish His glorious, eternal kingdom. Maranatha! O Lord, come!

Colossians 3:1–4

ON SEVERAL OCCASIONS students have greeted me after a seminary lecture with What’s an amil? or What is the difference between systematic theology and biblical theology? or What is liberation theology? These questions made me aware that there is a need for a general introductory work in the entire area of theology that can provide answers to simple, basic questions. It is with that in mind that the Moody Handbook of Theology has been written. Its intended audience is not only Bible institute, college, and seminary students, but also Sunday school teachers and other lay people who are interested in learning more about theology.

Many theological works are entirely too advanced for the average reader or beginning student of theology. Often the student must consult numerous works to find simple answers to basic questions. The Moody Handbook of Theology is not intended to be definitive or exhaustive; rather, it is an introductory work that will provide basic answers for questions in biblical theology, systematic theology, historical theology, dogmatic theology, and contemporary theology. Although there are many helpful books in each of these areas, there is a need for a basic work that overviews the entire spectrum of theology. It is that purpose this handbook of theology is intended to fulfill.

Because of the magnitude of the subjects covered, it is, of course, impossible to deal with all the sources and all the theologians in each of the areas. New theologies are emerging constantly! In some categories such as contemporary theology, only representative works and theologians have been cited.

Although the discussion in the five major areas is intended to provide a basic introduction, additional information can be obtained through the section at the end of each chapter designated For Further Study. Under this area a number of sources have been listed to facilitate research on the given topic. Beginning students should pursue the sources cited by a single asterisk (*). These are generally brief books, single chapters in books, articles in dictionaries, or, on some occasions, a more advanced title so cited because of its major importance. More demanding studies are normally designated by two asterisks (**) for those who want to expand their research.

It should be understood that the selections for the source lists have been chosen based on what would be most helpful to the general reader; as a result, the lists are not exhaustive. Therefore, some worthy works have been omitted.

In addition to the book lists, indexes are also provided at the end of the book for the reader to look up a subject by topic, author, and Scripture.

Careful documentation in the form of endnotes is present throughout the book. At times the number of these notes may seem alternately deficient or excessive. However, every deliberate effort has been made to include or omit documentation according to the estimated needs of the readers. These endnotes not only locate the sources and verification for quotations or ideas, but they also provide the reader with additional avenues for study.

Objectivity, fairness, and accuracy in presenting various viewpoints have been a serious goal in the production of this book. Within each theological category or viewpoint, such as Calvinism, Arminianism, and Catholicism, recognized authorities have been selected as representatives of those positions. Any oversight in proper documentation of ideas has been entirely unintentional.

Recognition must also be given to certain people who have been influential in this work. I wish to thank Moody Press for its support and willingness to undertake the project. My appreciation is extended to Dana Gould, executive editor of Moody Press, for his helpfulness, encouragement, and availability to discuss the project. And thanks to Bob Ramey, editor at Moody Press, for his graciousness and for his many useful suggestions in the editing process.

Four individuals have been particularly influential in shaping my theological thinking, and that debt must be acknowledged. I wish to thank Dr. William R. Eichhorst, president and professor of systematic theology, Winnipeg Bible College and Winnipeg Theological Seminary. He gave me my initial love for the doctrinal truths of Scripture. His commitment to the authority and doctrines of Scripture helped shape my theological thinking and my confidence in the Word of God. I am also indebted to the professors at Dallas Theological Seminary who through their writings and lectures have been influential in my theological awareness. In particular I honor Drs. John F. Walvoord, J. Dwight Pentecost, and Charles C. Ryrie. Their abilities to communicate God’s truth with expertise and insight in speaking and in writing have been an inspiration to me.

I wish to thank my wife and sons (to whom this book is dedicated) for their support, encouragement, and sacrifice during my writing. Through their commitment to this ministry, an arduous task has been lightened. Each of us is committed to the historic doctrines of the Christian faith, and many a dinner hour has been spent discussing the wonderful truths of Scripture.

Above all I thank my Lord, who has energized me in this project. It has been a lengthy, time-consuming project, yet the Lord has been faithful in strengthening me over the long hours at the computer. It is my prayer that the reader will come to a greater love for our great God and Savior Jesus Christ through the study of these doctrines. Knowledge is important, but it must issue in response. Jesus said, You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind (Matt. 22:37). It is my great hope that this Handbook of Theology will contribute to the fulfillment of this great and foremost commandment in the life of the reader.

1

DEFINITION

THE TERM BIBLICAL THEOLOGY can be used in different ways. Although the usage adopted in this volume focuses on a special method of theological study, it should be understood that the term is widely used to refer to a movement that is basically antagonistic to evangelical faith. This negative usage is here considered and discarded before the legitimate meaning of biblical theology is discussed.

First of all, then, this expression is used to describe the biblical theology movement. This was an outgrowth of liberalism and neoorthodoxy. It began with the publication of Walther Eichrodt’s first volume of Old Testament theology in 1933 and ended with the publication of von Rad’s second volume of Old Testament theology in 1960.¹ Brevard Childs suggests the movement experienced its demise in May 1963 with the publication of John A. T. Robinson’s Honest to God.

The movement initially was a reaction to liberalism and sought a return to an exegetical study of the Scriptures, particularly emphasizing a study of biblical words. Kittel’s monumental ten-volume Theological Dictionary of the New Testament is an outgrowth of that. As a movement, however, it never separated itself from its liberal underpinnings; it retained the historical-critical methodology. For example, in studying the gospels, adherents of the biblical theology movement applied the historical-critical methodology in attempting to discover which of the words attributed to Christ were actually spoken by Him.

While the movement recognized the weak message of liberalism of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it retained the liberal presuppositions concerning the Bible. Adherents held to the neoorthodox view of revelation, taught evolution as a theory of origins, and emphasized the human aspect of the Bible rather than the divine. As a result, the movement was self-defeating. It was impossible to do a serious, exegetical study of the Scriptures while at the same time denying the authority of the Scriptures.²

A second way in which the term biblical theology is used is for that methodology that takes its material in a historically oriented manner from the Old and New Testaments and arrives at a theology. It is exegetical in nature, drawing its material from the Bible as opposed to a philosophical understanding of theology; it stresses the historical circumstances in which doctrines were propounded; it examines the theology within a given period of history (as in Noahic or Abrahamic eras) or of an individual writer (as Pauline or Johannine writings).

Biblical theology in the above-defined sense may be called that branch of theological science which deals systematically with the historically conditioned progress of the self-revelation of God as deposited in the Bible.³

Several elements are important to observe in this definition:⁴

Systematization

Biblical theology investigates the periods of history in which God has revealed Himself or the doctrinal emphases of the different biblical writers as set forth in a systematic fashion. Biblical theology, while presented in a systematized form, is distinct from systematic theology that assimilates truth from the entire Bible and from outside the Scriptures in systematizing biblical doctrine. Biblical theology is narrower. It concentrates on the emphasis of a given period of history as in the Old Testament or on the explicit teaching of a particular writer as in the New Testament.

History

Biblical theology pays attention to the important historical circumstances in which the biblical doctrines were given. What can be learned from the Old Testament era of revelation? What were the circumstances in the writing of Matthew or John? What were the circumstances of the addressees of the letter to the Hebrews? These are important questions that help resolve the doctrinal emphasis of a particular period or of a specific writer.

Progress of Revelation

An orthodox doctrine that evangelicals have long held is the belief in progressive revelation; God did not reveal all truth about Himself at one time but revealed Himself piecemeal, portion by portion to different people throughout history (cf. Heb. 1:1). Biblical theology traces that progress of revelation, noting the revelation concerning Himself that God has given in a particular era or through a particular writer. Hence, God’s self-disclosure was not as advanced to Noah and Abraham as it was to Isaiah. An earlier book of the New Testament, such as James, reflects a more primitive view of the church than books written later, such as the pastoral epistles.

Biblical Nature

In contrast to systematic theology, which draws its information about God from any and every source, biblical theology has a narrower focus, drawing its information from the Bible (and from historical information that expands or clarifies the historical events of the Bible). Biblical theology thus is exegetical in nature, examining the doctrines in the various periods of history or examining the words and statements of a particular writer. This enables the student to determine the self-disclosure of God at a given period of history.

RELATION TO OTHER DISCIPLINES

⁵

Exegetical Studies

Biblical theology has a direct relationship to exegesis (to explain; to interpret), inasmuch as biblical theology is the result of exegesis. Exegesis lies at the foundation of biblical theology. Exegesis calls for an analysis of the biblical text according to the literal-grammatical-historical methodology. (1) The passage under consideration should be studied according to the normal meaning of language. How is the word or statement normally understood? (2) The passage should be studied according to the rules of grammar; exegesis demands an examination of the nouns, verbs, prepositions, etc., for a proper understanding of the passage. (3) The passage should be studied in its historical context. What were the political, social, and particularly the cultural circumstances surrounding it? Biblical theology does not end with exegesis, but it must begin there. The theologian must be hermeneutically exacting in analyzing the text to properly understand what Matthew, Paul, or John wrote.

Introductory Studies

Although it is not the purpose of biblical theology to provide a detailed discussion of introductory matters, some discussion is essential since interpretive solutions are sometimes directly related to introductory studies. Introduction determines issues like authorship, date, addressees, and occasion and purpose for writing. For example, the dating of the book of Hebrews is significant in that it relates to the extent of the suffering of the audience to whom the book is written. Persecution became severe after the burning of Rome in A.D. 64. Even more critical is the issue of the addressees in Hebrews. If the audience is understood to be unbelievers, the book will be studied in one fashion; if the audience is understood to be Hebrew Christians, the book will be understood differently. By way of other examples, the audiences of Matthew, Mark, and Luke also determine how these writers are evaluated. For example, Matthew’s theological viewpoint ought to be understood from the standpoint of having been written to a Jewish audience. The theological viewpoint of the writer is clearly related to introductory issues.

Systematic Theology Studies

There are both similarities and differences between biblical and systematic theology. Both are rooted in the analysis of Scripture, although systematic theology also seeks truth from sources outside the Bible. In noting the relationship of these two theologies, numerous distinctions can be observed. (1) Biblical theology is preliminary to systematic theology; exegesis leads to biblical theology, which in turn leads to systematic theology. (2) Biblical theology seeks to determine what the biblical writers said concerning a theological issue, whereas systematic theology also explains why something is true, adding a philosophical viewpoint. (3) While biblical theology provides the viewpoint of the biblical writer, systematic theology gives a doctrinal discussion from a contemporary viewpoint. (4) Biblical theology analyzes the material of a particular writer or period of history, whereas systematic theology investigates all materials both biblical and extrabiblical that relate to a particular doctrinal matter.

Contrasts between biblical and systematic theology are portrayed on the following page.

METHODOLOGY

Biblical theology of the Old Testament is best understood when examining the Old Testament for a center or unifying principle. Many different proposals have been suggested concerning a unifying theme of the Old Testament. Walter Kaiser has suggested promise as the unifying theme; Elmer Martens suggests God’s design as the focal point; whereas Eugene Merrill suggests kingdom as the underlying theme of the Old Testament. Whatever theme is emphasized, biblical theology of the Old Testament should be able to see the unfolding of that theme in the different periods of the Old Testament (progressive revelation). (See further discussion of methodology under Introduction to Old Testament Theology, chap. 2.)

Since the writing of the New Testament books probably encompassed less than fifty years,⁶ biblical theology of the New Testament must concern itself with the viewpoint of the different New Testament authors. Thus, the biblical theology of the New Testament is studied according to Pauline theology, Petrine theology, Johannine theology, and so forth. This study evaluates what particular doctrines the writers of the New Testament emphasized and how they developed those doctrines. (See further discussion of methodology under Introduction to New Testament Theology, chap. 9.)

IMPORTANCE

⁷

Shows Historical Development of Doctrine

Biblical theology is important in that it prevents the study of doctrine apart from its historical context. In the study of systematic theology it is entirely possible to ignore the historical context of doctrinal truth; biblical theology serves to avert that problem by paying attention to the historical milieu in which the doctrine was given.

Shows Emphasis of the Writer

Biblical theology reveals the doctrinal teaching of a particular writer or of an entire period. In that sense, biblical theology systematizes the Scriptures pertinent to a writer or period and determines the major teaching or doctrinal focus of the writer or period of time. It enables the student to determine what was emphasized during the Abrahamic era or what was emphasized by the apostle John, providing a different perspective from that normally attained through the study of systematic theology.

Shows Human Element in Inspiration

While it is true that the Bible is verbally inspired and inerrant, it is also true that the writers of Scripture each wrote according to their distinctive style. Biblical theology emphasizes the human factor in the writing of Scripture (but not to the exclusion of inspiration). Thus biblical theology is intent on discovering what John or Paul taught or what was emphasized during a period of Old Testament history. Biblical theology points up the individual backgrounds, interest, and style of the authors. Biblical theology emphasizes the part that the writers had in the composition of the Word of God, while, of course, building on the divine superintendence of the writings.⁸

NOTES

1.  J. Goldingay, The Study of Old Testament Theology: Its Aims and Purpose, Tyndale Bulletin 26 (1975), 34.

2.  For a conservative discussion, evaluation, and critique see G. F. Hasel, Biblical Theology Movement, in Walter A. Elwell, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984), 149–52; and Geoffrey W. Bromiley, Biblical Theology, in Baker’s Dictionary of Theology, Everett F. Harrison, ed., (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1960), 95–97. For a nonconservative evaluation see Brevard S. Childs, Biblical Theology in Crisis (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1970) and James Barr, Trends and Prospects in Biblical Theology, Journal of Theological Studies 25 (1974): 265–82.

3.  Charles C. Ryrie, Biblical Theology of the New Testament (Chicago: Moody, 1959), 12. See also the helpful brief discussion in Charles C. Ryrie, Basic Theology (Wheaton: Victor, 1986), 14.

4.  Ryrie, Biblical Theology of the New Testament, 12–14.

5.  See discussion by Ryrie, Biblical Theology of the New Testament, 14–19; and Geerhardus Vos, Biblical Theology: Old and New Testaments (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1948), 14–16.

6.  Less than thirty years according to John A. T. Robinson, Redating the New Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976), 352.

7.  See Ryrie, Biblical Theology of the New Testament, 20–24; and Vos, Biblical Theology, 17–18.

8.  Ryrie, Biblical Theology of the New Testament, 23.

FOR FURTHER STUDY ON BIBLICAL THEOLOGY

  *  Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Biblical Theology. In Baker’s Dictionary of Theology, Everett F. Harrison, ed., Grand Rapids: Baker, 1960. 95–97.

**  Brevard S. Childs. Biblical Theology in Crisis. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1970.

**  Donald Guthrie. New Testament Theology. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1981. 21–74.

**  Gerhard Hasel. Old Testament Theology: Basic Issues in the Current Debate. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982. This is an important work in discussing the methodology of Old Testament theology.

  *  Biblical Theology Movement. In Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Edited by Walter A. Elwell. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984. 149–52.

**  Walter C. Kaiser Jr. Toward an Old Testament Theology. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978. 1–19.

**  Elmer A. Martens. God’s Design: A Focus on Old Testament Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981.

  *  J. Barton Payne. The Theology of the Older Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1962. 15–24.

  *  Charles C. Ryrie. Biblical Theology of the New Testament. Chicago: Moody, 1959. 11–24.

  *  Geerhardus Vos. Biblical Theology: Old and New Testaments. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1948. 3–18.

2

THE STUDY OF OLD TESTAMENT theology is a complex task. There is no unanimity among Old Testament scholars on which approach to take. The discussion under Methodology of Old Testament Theology will introduce the reader to the varying approaches that are taken. It is possible to study the Old Testament under the topics of God, sin, salvation, and so forth, but that is limiting inasmuch as it is little more than a systematic theology of the Old Testament. Because of the span of time involved it is profitable to study the Old Testament dealing with the differing eras it records in which God has revealed Himself. Within that framework it is possible to study the major doctrines within each era (as Chester Lehman does)—which is helpful, but it fails to tie the study together. It is also possible to see a common theme in the different eras as does Kaiser in his helpful work. This is important in seeing a unity in Old Testament theology.

It seems best to see the unity of the Old Testament as developed around the theme of kingdom. The theme is emphasized throughout the Old Testament—in the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. Throughout the Old Testament God dispensed His theocratic kingdom through mediators. God appointed human leaders through whom He revealed His will and made Himself known. The final, ultimate form of God’s theocratic kingdom is the millennial kingdom governed by Jesus Christ. It is ultimately that kingdom to which the Old Testament looks forward.

By way of introduction, then, Old Testament theology should see the unfolding of God’s revelation; it should be based on a study of the Old Testament text; and it should draw the study together around the developing focus of the theocratic kingdom.

HISTORY OF OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY

¹

Early Developments

There is no evidence of an organized study of biblical theology in the Old Testament or New Testament. The earliest evidence is found with Irenaeus (c. A.D. 130–200) who recognized the progressive revelation of God. Later, Augustine (A.D. 354–430) suggested five historical periods of divine revelation. During the Reformation the issues were basically soteriological, and thus biblical theology as a science did not develop during that time.

Nineteenth Century

The modern beginnings of biblical theology can be traced to John Philip Gabler, who described biblical theology as the religious ideas of Scripture as an historical fact, so as to distinguish the different times and subjects, and so also the different stages in the development of these ideas.² Gabler denied the supernatural, however, and the first conservative work did not appear until E. W. Hengstenberg’s Christology of the Old Testament (1829–35). Earlier, Georg Lorenz Bauer (1755–1806) published the first Old Testament theology, dividing it into theology, anthropology, and Christology. Many Old Testament theology works followed, including Gustave Friedrich Oehler’s monumental work in 1873–74.³

History of Religions

The history of religions school followed the temper of the nineteenth century. It built upon Darwin’s evolutionary theory, applying the theory to religion. The Hebrew faith was not seen as a unique religion but as having a relationship with other religions, because they all evolved from a common source. Similarities between Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, and Hinduism could readily be seen. Thus, the Old Testament was evaluated, not as divine revelation, but in its historical development.

Old Testament theology, according to the history of religions school, accepted the theories of Wellhausen, which denied the unity of the Old Testament by relegating the writings of individual books to several authors over a period of time.⁴ Thus, the Old Testament was reduced to a collection of materials from detached periods and consisted simply of Israelite reflections of as many different pagan religions.⁵

Salvation-History School

Reacting to the humanistic approach to the Bible was the Heilsgeschichte (Salvation History) school that sought to emphasize God’s activity in history. J. C. K. von Hoffman and other theologians examined the Old Testament and noted the progressive development of salvation. The emphasis of this school was on the ministry of Christ at His first advent and also the consummating ministry at His second advent. This school had both strengths and weaknesses. Its strength was its return to divine revelation; its weakness was its rejection of the inspiration of Scripture. (They accepted some of higher criticism’s views of the Bible.) This school had considerable influence into the twentieth century.

Neoorthodoxy

A shift in Old Testament theology occurred following World War I. The reasons for this were: (1) a general loss of faith in evolutionary naturalism; (2) a reaction against the conviction that historical truth can be attained by pure scientific ‘objectivity’ or that such objectivity is indeed attainable; and (3) the trend of a return to the idea of revelation in dialectical (neoorthodox) theology.⁶ The Old Testament theologies that were written in the beginning of the twentieth century reflected the reaction against scientific humanism as well as the acceptance of the subjectivity of neoorthodoxy. Konig’s Old Testament theology rejected the Wellhausen theory but had other defects; Eissfeldt followed the thinking of the historicists in denying the activity of God, yet he emphasized the subjective nature of the theologian’s faith in encountering God. Eichrodt rejected Eissfeldt’s theory, held to the historical theory of Gabler, but also emphasized the subjective nature of the study.

While neoorthodoxy led to a generally more serious attitude toward the Scriptures, it still acknowledged many aspects of higher criticism, including a denial of verbal plenary inspiration. In addition, the Old Testament theologies written under the influence of neoorthodoxy emphasized the subjective element (to the neglect of objectivity) in their approach to the Scriptures.

Conservatism

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Princeton Seminary was providing leadership in conservative theology. From this school came some of the important Old Testament works, principally Biblical Theology by Geerhardus Vos. Other Princeton men, such as William Henry Green, Robert Dick Wilson, and B. B. Warfield, also made strong contributions. More recently, works by O.T. Allis and E. J. Young of Westminster Seminary have provided important Old Testament theological studies. Charles C. Ryrie, of Dallas Theological Seminary, has also written an important Old Testament theology, The Basis of the Premillennial Faith, seeing the unity of the Old Testament based on the unconditional covenants of God with Israel.

METHODOLOGY OF OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY

⁷

There is no consensus concerning the methodology of Old Testament theology. Over the past two centuries there has been considerable diversity in the development of an Old Testament theology. The following are some of the approaches that have been used.

The Dogmatic-Didactic Method

The term dogmatic relates this to dogmatic or systematic theology. It follows the God-man-salvation structure as first employed by Georg Lorenz Bauer in 1796 and more recently by R. C. Denton. Denton states that the most basic affirmation of Old Testament religion is that Yahweh is the God of Israel, and Israel is the people of Yahweh.⁸

The Genetic-Progressive Method

This approach traces the revelation of God in the significant eras of Old Testament history, particularly centered on the covenants God made with Noah, Abraham, and Moses. This method is employed by Chester K. Lehman, who derived the method from his teacher, Geerhardus Vos. Lehman states, We discover that the most fundamental line of cleavage in divine revelation centers in the several covenants which God made with man…. It will be my plan to consider individually and in order the covenants made by God with Noah, Abraham, Moses, and through Christ. All the teaching centering in these covenants will be considered in relation to these several covenants.⁹ Eichrodt also follows this basic principle (although he is listed in the following category). Lehman also acknowledges insights from Gustave Oehler. R. E. Clements of Cambridge University could also be considered in this category.¹⁰

The Cross-Section Method

This method was developed by Walther Eichrodt in the 1930s by suggesting that the covenant was the center of Old Testament study. He relies on the historical nature of the Old Testament and develops his theology by making a cross-section through the historical process, laying bare the inner structure of religion.¹¹ Out of the covenant principle Eichrodt develops three major categories: God and the people, God and the world, and God and man to show the development of thought and institution. The Dutch theologian C. Vriezen follows a similar thesis establishing the communion as the center of Old Testament study. The emphasis is on the unity of the Old Testament. Walter Kaiser Jr. also sees a unity of the Old Testament centered on the promise of the Old Testament, to which every writer of the Old Testament consciously contributed.¹²

The Topical Method

John L. McKenzie develops an Old Testament theology without consideration of the New Testament. In contrast to other Old Testament theologies that attempt to see a relationship between the testaments, McKenzie writes as if the New Testament did not exist. He agrees with Harnack or Bultmann, who apparently stated that the Old Testament is not a Christian book.¹³ McKenzie develops his Old Testament theology around Israel’s experience of Yahweh. Recognizing that not every experience is of equal value, he is selective in determining what is included in his study but emphasizes that the totality of the experience is the important thing.¹⁴ Other works that fit this category are Georg Fohrer, Basic Theological Structures of the Old Testament, and W. Zimmerli, Old Testament Theology in Outline.

Diachronic Method

G. von Rad, who wrote a two-volume Old Testament Theology, says that an Old Testament theology must re-tell Israel’s kerygma or confession of the Old Testament, which the nation Israel stated in historical context. He did not mean factual history, however, but interpretive history. The retelling was not in statements of faith; they were acts by which the people expressed their awareness of their relation to God.¹⁵ Von Rad did not find a central theme in his Old Testament theology but contented himself to narrating what the Old Testament says about its own contents.¹⁶

Formation-of-Tradition Method

Hartmut Gese developed an Old Testament theology that "must be understood essentially as an historical process of development…. There is neither a Christian nor a Jewish theology of the OT, but one theology of the OT realized by means of the OT formation of tradition."¹⁷ He saw a relationship and unity between the New Testament and the Old Testament so that the New Testament brings about the OT … brings the so-called OT to an end. The unity of the two testaments was to be found in the tradition process that was common in both. The New Testament was to be seen as the goal of the Old Testament. In this approach Gese, like von Rad, did not see a common theme or central point of Old Testament study. Peter Stuhlmacher, also of the Formation-of-Tradition school, argued for a central point that was the gospel of the justification in Christ.

The Thematic-Dialectical Method

Since W. Brueggemann sees a stalemate in Old Testament theology methodology, he has proposed a thematic and dialectical relationship, citing the works of Terrien, Westermann, and Hanson, each one using a dialectical system (reasoning process that seeks to resolve conflict between opposing ideas). For example, Terrien argues for the reality of God’s presence as being at the center of biblical faith, everything else being dependent on it. This also provides the continuity between the Old Testament and the New Testament. The dialectic employed by Terrien is ethical/aesthetic. The ‘ethical’ aspect of the dialectic is presented in the historical-covenantal materials and the ‘aesthetic’ in the wisdom and psalmic materials.¹⁸

New Biblical Theology Method

Brevard Childs has called for a new biblical theology that moves beyond the historical-critical method (which exalted human reason as the ultimate authority and treated the Bible like any other book) that underlies most Old Testament theologies. He suggests the abandonment of the historical-critical method (rejecting the history of religions school) and proposes as his thesis the canon of the New Testament church. He suggests dealing with the biblical text in its final form as the normal method of doing Old Testament theology.

Multiplex Canonical Old Testament Theology

Hasel proposes some essentials that should be included in the study of an Old Testament theology. (1) An Old Testament theology should be a theology of the canonical Old Testament; it is distinct from the history of Israel or the history of religions concept. (2) Hasel argues against a center or key concept of Old Testament theology, but rather providing summary explanations and interpretations of the final form of the individual OT writings or blocks of writings that let their various themes, motifs, and concepts emerge and reveal their relatedness to each other.¹⁹ (3) Follow a multiplex approach, which allows individual books and blocks of books to exist side by side with their varying emphases. (4) Follow the historical sequence of the date of origin of the Old Testament books. (5) Present the longitudinal themes of the Old Testament as they emerge from the theologies of the book or groups of books. (6) Examine the various longitudinal themes to discover a relationship between them. (7) An Old Testament theology should be seen as part of a larger whole, standing in relationship to the New Testament.

Promise as the Theme

A popular evangelical Old Testament theology is Walter Kaiser’s approach in seeing the unity of the Old Testament around the theme of promise. Kaiser develops an Old Testament theology based on the exegesis of Scripture, using the promise of the Abrahamic covenant in Genesis 12:1–3 in which God set apart a special people to Himself. This is seen in the phrase I am the Lord your God who brought you up out of the land of Egypt—a formula mentioned in whole or part 125 times in the Old Testament.²⁰ This theme is developed in the establishment of Israel as the people of God in the Mosaic era, the promise of the Messiah in the Davidic era, and the promise of the future kingdom in the prophetic era.

God’s Design as the Theme

Another evangelical approach is to recognize that God’s design is the key to the content of the Old Testament.²¹ Martens builds his thesis on an exegesis of Exodus 5:22–6:8 and draws four basic conclusions reflecting his Old Testament: (1) Yahweh’s initial design for his people is deliverance; (2) Yahweh’s design is to form a godly community; (3) Yahweh’s intention is that there be an on-going relationship with his people; (4) Yahweh’s intention for his people is that they enjoy the good life.²² Concerning this good life, Martens indicates that God gave Israel the land flowing with milk and honey—a pleasant land, symbolizing living an abundant life in fellowship with Yahweh under ideal conditions.

IDENTIFICATION OF AN OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY

Several elements should be evident in an Old Testament theology. (1) The doctrine of the inspiration of Scripture is necessary if justice is to be done to the biblical text. There can be no true examination of the biblical text if man sits in judgment upon that text with the criterion of human reason. (2) Old Testament theology should involve exegesis of the biblical text, applying proper hermeneutical principles, thereby allowing the biblical text to speak for itself. This results in an inductive rather than a deductive study. (3) Old Testament theology is built on the premise of progressive revelation and, through exegesis, discovering the progress of the revelation of God in history. (4) Old Testament theology examines the different eras, particularly as noted through the covenants God made with His mediators, to discover how God has revealed Himself in biblical history. (5) An Old Testament theology should discern a unity of the Scriptures; the revelation that God has given concerning Himself should reflect an ultimate consummating purpose whereby the God of the Old and New testaments brings glory to Himself. That unity is found in the kingdom concept.

It is best to see the unity and the center or thematic principle of the Old Testament in the concept of the kingdom of God.²³ This theme can be seen from the very beginning of Genesis to the concluding words of the prophets. Scripture indicates that God mediates His will on earth through mediators.²⁴

At any point in history, beginning in Genesis, God rules His mediatorial kingdom on earth through appointed agents. Adam was the first mediator of God’s kingdom on earth; Messiah will be the final mediator.

God’s purpose for man from the very beginning was that man was destined to rule over creation. Man was to be king of the earth.²⁵ With the fall of man God has been working to restore man as king of the earth. The ultimate form of man’s rule over the earth will be Messiah’s kingdom.

The unconditional covenants of the Old Testament are important and also point to the kingdom as the center or theme of Old Testament theology.

THE KINGDOM: UNIFYING THEME OF OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY (Some Important Highlights)

MEDIATOR: ADAM

MEDIATORIAL RULE: Mediated the theocratic kingdom rule over creation. Man was to obey God and subdue nature and animal life.

MEDIATOR: NOAH

MEDIATORIAL RULE: Mediated the theocratic kingdom through the administration of justice. Noah instituted capital punishment as a recognition of the sanctity of life.

MEDIATOR: ABRAHAM

MEDIATORIAL RULE:

1.  Father of a nation through whom God would one day administer His rule over the world.

2.  Received the Abrahamic covenant which promised: (a) land, (b) posterity, (c) blessing.

MEDIATOR: MOSES AND ISRAEL

MEDIATORIAL RULE:

1.  God’s will was revealed through the Mosaic law. God was king; Israel the subjects; the Mosaic law the constitution of the theocratic kingdom.

2.  Israel mediates God’s truth to the nations through the Mosaic law.

MEDIATOR: DAVID

MEDIATORIAL RULE:

1.  David mediated God’s rule on earth in the Davidic era (c. 1010–970 B.C.).

2.  Received the Davidic Covenant which, in anticipating Messiah’s kingdom, promised: (a) a dynasty, (b) a kingdom, (c) a throne, (d) an everlasting rule.

MEDIATOR: PROPHETS

MEDIATORIAL RULE:

1.  When the kings apostatized, God raised up prophets as mediators of His theocratic kingdom.

2.  The prophets had a twofold message: (a) They exhorted the people to obey the Mosaic law in the theocratic kingdom; (b) they prophesied concerning the final form of the kingdom: Messiah’s millennial rule.

3.  Isaiah saw a suffering Messiah as foundational to the future kingdom reign of Messiah.

4.  Jeremiah announced the new covenant—it is the basis whereby God will bless Israel in the future. The new covenant anticipates Israel as a regenerated people in the future kingdom.

5.  Ezekiel envisioned a restored worship in the future kingdom.

6.  Daniel saw Messiah destroying all earthly kingdoms and establishing the millennial kingdom.

In the Abrahamic covenant (Gen. 12:1–3) God called a man through whom He would provide redemption and blessing. Under the Palestinian covenant (Deut. 30) Israel, the offspring of Abraham, was promised a land wherein God would bless them. However, that blessing will ultimately come through Messiah, a descendant of both Abraham and King David (2 Sam. 7:12–16; Matt. 1:1). Moreover, the blessing will be made possible through regenerated people, as promised in the new covenant (Jer. 31:31–34).

These four covenants form the foundation of an Old Testament theology in which God will redeem and bless His people. The relationship and emphasis of these covenants can be seen in the following diagram:

EMPHASIS OF OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY

Old Testament theology can be summarized under the central theme of kingdom. From the beginning of history God has worked through appointed mediators in administrating the mediatorial kingdom throughout Old Testament history. All of those administrations, however, anticipated the culminating mediatorial kingdom: the millennium under the rule of Messiah. The unconditional covenants of the Old Testament in particular define the nature of the future millennial kingdom. With the Abrahamic covenant God began to deal with a special people, Israel. God promised them a land, a posterity that would issue in Messiah and a people over whom He would rule, and spiritual blessing that would involve forgiveness. Throughout the remainder of the Old Testament writings, God deals with Israel to bring her to a place of spiritual blessing in which she will be the agent for God to bless the nations of the world.

Israel was given the conditional Mosaic covenant as the demonstration of God’s holiness, which was His standard. Those who would enter into fellowship with a holy God would also have to have His holy standard. That would be accomplished through forgiveness—promised in the new covenant (Jer. 31:31–34). The prophetic books add further detail regarding how that will be achieved. Isaiah and Zechariah picture not only a reigning Messiah, but also a suffering Messiah through whom God provides forgiveness. Many of the prophetic books detail the climactic age when, at Messiah’s return, the nation Israel is repentant, forgiven, and restored to the land that was promised to her (Deut. 30:1–10). The nations of the world will also enter into blessing. In God’s program of dealing with Israel and the Gentiles to bring them to a place of blessing, a repetitious theme of the Old Testament is the continuing sin of the human race and the grace of God to restore an errant humanity.

It is God’s promise to David, however, that indicates David’s greater Son will be the One through whom this future kingdom will be inaugurated (2 Sam. 7:12–16). In this magnificent statement God promises David that His