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Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Nanofluid Flow in Microchannels: Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer
Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Nanofluid Flow in Microchannels: Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer
Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Nanofluid Flow in Microchannels: Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer
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Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Nanofluid Flow in Microchannels: Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer

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Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Nanofluid Flow in Microchannels: Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer focuses on the numerical simulation of passive techniques, and also covers the applications of external forces on heat transfer enhancement of nanofluids in microchannels.

Economic and environmental incentives have increased efforts to reduce energy consumption. Heat transfer enhancement, augmentation, or intensification are the terms that many scientists employ in their efforts in energy consumption reduction. These can be divided into (a) active techniques which require external forces such as magnetic force, and (b) passive techniques which do not require external forces, including geometry refinement and fluid additives.

  • Gives readers the knowledge they need to be able to simulate nanofluids in a wide range of microchannels and optimise their heat transfer characteristics
  • Contains real-life examples, mathematical procedures, numerical algorithms, and codes to allow readers to easily reproduce the methodologies covered, and to understand how they can be applied in practice
  • Presents novel applications for heat exchange systems, such as entropy generation minimization and figures of merit, allowing readers to optimize the techniques they use
  • Focuses on the numerical simulation of passive techniques, and also covers the applications of external forces on heat transfer enhancement of nanofluids in microchannels
LanguageEnglish
Release dateJun 11, 2016
ISBN9780323431781
Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Nanofluid Flow in Microchannels: Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer
Author

Davood Domairry Ganji

D. D. Ganji is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering and the Director of the Graduate Program at Babol Noshirvani University of Technology in Iran, as well as a consultant in nonlinear dynamics and the Dean of the National Elite Foundation of Iran. He has a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Tarbiat Modarres University. He is the Editor-in-Chief of International Journal of Nonlinear Dynamic and Engineering Science, and Editor of International Journal of Nonlinear Sciences and Numerical Simulation and International Journal of Differential Equations.

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    Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Nanofluid Flow in Microchannels - Davood Domairry Ganji

    Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Nanofluid Flow in Microchannels

    Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer

    Davood Domairry Ganji

    Amir Malvandi

    Table of Contents

    Cover image

    Title page

    Copyright

    Preface

    1. Introduction to Heat Transfer Enhancement

    1.1. Why Enhancing Heat Transfer Rate Is Crucial?

    1.2. Heat Transfer Enhancement Classification

    2. Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in Channels

    2.1. Concept of Fully Developed and Developing Flow

    2.2. Navier-Stokes Equations

    2.3. Fully Developed Region

    3. Preparation and Theoretical Modeling of Nanofluids

    3.1. Preparation of Nanofluids

    3.2. Theoretical Modeling of Nanofluids

    3.3. Buongiorno Model

    3.4. Thermophysical Dependency of Nanofluids to Nanoparticle Volume Fraction

    3.5. Modified Buongiorno Model

    3.6. Final Remarks

    4. Simulation of Nanofluid Flow in Channels

    4.1. How Consequential Is Nanofluid Flow in Channels?

    4.2. Experimental and Theoretical Modeling of Nanofluids in Channels

    4.3. Modified Buongiorno's Model and Its Influence on Physical Understanding of Nanofluid Behavior in Channels

    5. External Forces Effect on Intensification of Heat Transfer

    5.1. Heat Transfer Enhancement of Nanofluids With External Forces

    5.2. Magnetic Field Effects on Forced Convective Heat Transfer

    5.3. Magnetic Field Effects on Mixed Convective Heat Transfer

    5.4. Magnetic Field Effects on Natural Convective Heat Transfer

    Index

    Copyright

    William Andrew is an imprint of Elsevier

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    This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

    Notices

    Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

    Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

    To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

    British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

    A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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    A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

    ISBN: 978-0-323-43139-2

    For information on all William Andrew publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com

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    Preface

    Science knows no country, because knowledge belongs to humanity, and is the torch which illuminates the world. Science is the highest personification of the nation because that nation will remain the first which carries the furthest the works of thought and intelligence.

    Louis Pasteur

    Economic incentives, energy saving, and space consideration have increased efforts to construct more efficient heat exchange equipment. Many techniques have been presented by researchers to improve heat transfer performance, which is referred to as heat transfer enhancement, augmentation, or intensification. The growing applications of nanofluids and constructing microscale channels as the innovative methods of heat transfer enhancement have made us conduct a study in this field. Until now, very few studies have been dedicated to this problem, most of which have been performed experimentally while theoretical investigation failed to contemplate the effects of nanofluids in channels. This book has been motivated by the need to determine the motional behavior of nanoparticles and their effects on the viscosity and thermal conductivity of the nanofluid.

    The contents of the current book are able to benefit the engineers, researchers, and graduate students who want to develop their knowledge in basic phenomena in nanofluids as well as the heat transfer enhancement methods in microchannels. In each chapter, several examples of recently published papers from high-quality journals are included to illuminate the subject. The authors are very much pleased to receive the readers' comments and amendments on the materials of the book. Finally, we would like to express our sincere thanks to the staff of Micro- and Nanotech books at Elsevier for their helpful support.

    We hope this book will be of great benefit to you.

    Amir Malvandi,     Neyshabur Branch, Islamic Azad University,     Young Researchers and Elite Club, Karaj Branch,     Sun Air Research Institute, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad

    Davood Domairry Ganji,     Babol Noshirvani University of Technology

    Scientist in the field of engineering, http://archive.sciencewatch.com/dr/fbp/2008/08febfbp/08febGanji/

    1

    Introduction to Heat Transfer Enhancement

    Abstract

    The aim of this chapter is to study the different mechanisms of heat transfer enhancement. Heat transfer enhancement techniques are divided into two main groups, namely passive (those which do not require direct application of external power) and active (require external power) techniques. Each method is described and explained with its advantages/disadvantages to provide basic information for the reader.

    Keywords

    Active techniques; Channel; Efficient heat transport; Energy; Heat transfer enhancement; Passive techniques

    1.1. Why Enhancing Heat Transfer Rate Is Crucial?

    For the past century, reducing energy consumption has attracted considerable attention from engineers and scientists. Whether it is called energy saving, energy conservation, or energy efficiency, many efforts have led to creating more professional equipment. In heat exchange equipment, other factors like space limitations and economic incentives have accelerated this concept further. Firstly, the focus was on boosting the heat transfer coefficient by improving the thermal properties. This has enabled us to solve other significant problems such as lowering the maximum temperature of surfaces and reducing the mass and size of heat exchangers. A complete review of these attempts has been conducted [1,2]. Then, other concepts like Exergy Analysis [3,4], Entropy Generation Minimization [5,6], and Field Synergy Principle [7] were developed to consider the overall performance of the system including increasing the heat transfer rate and reducing the initial and capital costs of the heat transfer system.

    In general, the goal is simple: reducing heat exchanger size with improved heat transfer performance. It should be noted that the improved heat transfer performance is referred to such enhancement in heat transfer rate without any undesirable problems like additional pressure loss.

    1.2. Heat Transfer Enhancement Classification

    According to Bergles [1], heat transfer enhancement methods can be classified into two main groups: passive and active techniques. Passive techniques are those which do not require direct application of external power, while active techniques require external power. Except for extended surfaces like fins, which enhance the effective heat transfer surface area, the passive techniques improve the heat transfer coefficients by disturbing or altering the existing flow behavior which is usually accompanied by a rise in the pressure drop. In the case of active techniques, on the other hand, the addition of external power essentially facilitates the desired flow modification and the concomitant improvement in the rate of heat transfer.

    It is worth mentioning that the effectiveness of both types of techniques is completely dependent on the mode of heat transfer (such as single- or two-phase flow, free or forced convection, and boiling) and type and process application of the heat exchanger. Fig. 1.1 shows different methods of enhancing the heat transfer rate.

    Figure 1.1  Different methods of heat transfer enhancement.

    Using more than one technique of those pertained to in Fig. 1.1 simultaneously is useful and can enhance the heat transfer rate to a large extend. This method, the compound technique, has attracted considerable attention from researchers recently.

    1.2.1. Passive Techniques

    By changing the flow treatment, the passive techniques increase the heat transfer rate which usually increases the pressure drop. These methods do not need external power and usually utilize geometry refinement and fluid additives. As shown in Fig. 1.1, the various ways of passive heat transfer enhancement are as follows.

    1.2.1.1. Treated Surfaces

    This technique is usually used for boiling and condensing, which involves surface coating and fine-scale alteration of the surface finish. This technique found its application in various industries, such as microelectronics, biotechnology, and microelectromechanical systems. With the recent progress in surface engineering, many efforts have been directed toward improved surface wettability, like hydrophobic, hydrophilic, and superhydrophobic (see Fig. 1.2) [8] surfaces. These surfaces, in addition, enhance the convective heat transfer rate since they result in nonadherence of fluid to solid at the boundaries, known as slip boundary conditions [9–13]. Slippage of liquids near the walls of microscale channels has been encountered as a result of the interaction between a coated solid wall (hydrophobic, hydrophilic, or superhydrophobic materials) and the adjacent fluid particle. In fact, because of the repellent nature of the hydrophobic and superhydrophobic surfaces, the fluid molecules which are close to the surface do not follow the solid boundary, resulting in an overall velocity slip. More discussion on the slip effects can be found in open literature (eg, [14,15]).

    1.2.1.2. Rough Surfaces

    Rough surfaces are usually employed to enhance the turbulence. Although they do not increase the surface area, they increase the heat transfer coefficients by disturbing the viscous sublayer, particularly in single-phase flow. For instance, a dimpled surface, as shown in Fig. 1.3, increases the heat transfer rate, while having negligible effect on the pressure drop.

    Figure 1.2  Water on a superhydrophobic surface. http://itg.beckman.illinois.edu/communications/iotw/2008-04-29.

    Figure 1.3  Dimple surface (A) and its effect on the fluid flow with computational fluid dynamics simulation (B).

    1.2.1.3. Extended Surfaces

    This technique is used to increase the heat transfer area and is a commonplace method in increasing the heat transfer rate in many heat exchangers. Furthermore, they can create swirl turbulence and secondary flow. Extended surfaces, or fins, have a variety of applications such as air conditioning systems, compressors, and cooling of electronic components. They are usually placed in the side with the highest thermal resistance to increase the heat transmission. Up to now, many kinds of fins are introduced by researchers in various geometrical shapes such as rectangular, trapezoidal, spins, and triangular. Some typical examples of fins are illustrated in Fig. 1.4. Suitable fins are those that induce small pressure gradients in the flow.

    Recently, finding a close-form solution for heat transfer coefficient and surface temperature of the fins has attracted considerable attention. Many researchers have tried to find appropriate analytical solutions for these problems which can be found in open literature [16,17].

    Figure 1.4  Some types of fins.

    Figure 1.5  Wire matrix tabulators that offer the greatest benefit for laminar and transitional flow regimes. http://www.allturbulators.com/products/product-and-design-philosophy.html.

    1.2.1.4. Displacing Devices

    Such devices insert into the channels to promote the energy transport by displacing the fluid from the hot to cold regions. Fig. 1.5 shows a type of insert that is commonly used by researchers. The coined term vortex generator is referred to these devices since they usually induce vortices that sweep downstream of the insert.

    1.2.1.5. Swirl Flow Devices

    Swirl flow devices refer to a number of geometrical arrangements and tube inserts which create secondary and rotating flows. Inlet vortex generators, twisted tape inserts, and stationary propellers are examples of this technique. Fig. 1.6 illustrates a type of twisted tape insert which is used in circular ducts.

    1.2.1.6. Curved Tubes

    Using curved pipes is one of the effective methods which is very useful because they are compact and easily accommodated. In curved tubes, the position of maximum axial velocity is moved toward the outer wall of a curved pipe by centrifugal forces. Centrifugal effects in curved pipes induce a secondary motion normal to the main flow, which shifts the peak of the axial velocity toward the outer bend of a curved pipe. One of the most applied examples of the curved pipes is a helical tube which has many applications in mechanical and chemical engineering. Chemical reactors, exhaust gas ducts of engines, cooling channels in the nozzle of a rocket engine or any kind of pipelines, tubes, and conduits transporting gases and cooling of gas turbine blades profited from the use of curved or helically coiled pipes. It also arises in biofluid mechanics, especially blood vessels.

    Flow inside curved pipes is determined by the mutual effects of centrifugal, pressure, and viscous forces. The direction of centrifugal forces is toward the outer bend region while that of the pressure forces is toward the inner bend region, balancing each other. Centrifugal forces induce the centrifugal velocities to the fluid's particles in the same directions as centrifugal forces which push the axial peak velocity toward the outer bend region (centrifugal direction). The values of centrifugal velocities correspond to the centrifugal forces which are directly proportional to the square of the axial velocities. Due to the larger axial velocities in the region away from the pipe walls, the centrifugal forces are dominant, inducing centrifugal velocities, which are from the inner bend region toward the outer bend region. However, near the walls, the axial velocities vanish due to the nonslip condition and result in reduction in both the centrifugal forces and the velocities. Furthermore, as the radius of the curvature increases, the centrifugal forces decrease and the pressure forces increase. Hence, closer to the walls the pressure gradient takes control of the flow direction and the boundary layers develop from the outer bend region toward the inner bend region. The interaction of the reverse flows, the cores and boundary layers, generates the pairs of vortices close to the pipe walls, a large pair near the outer pipe wall and a small pair near the inner pipe wall. Thus, the centrifugal forces and the radial pressure gradients, due to the curvature, produce the secondary flows in a plane normal to the main flow which consists of the core regions (centrifugal forces dominate) and viscous boundary layers (pressure forces dominate). In helical pipes, in addition to the curvature, the torsion is involved, and the secondary flow patterns are even more complicated than the pure curved pipes. Torsion, which is the result of the pitch of helical pipe, causes the plane of curvature to move and rotate and, therefore, the direction of centrifugal forces changes along the main flow axis. Therefore, torsion induces the counterclockwise tangential velocities normal to the centrifugal velocities and prompts a clockwise rotation in axial velocity pattern. Figs. 1.7 and 1.8 show the flow structures in helical and curved tubes.

    Figure 1.6  Twisted tapes for enhancing the heat transfer rate. http://www.calgavin.com/heat-exchanger-solutions/twisted-tape.

    Figure 1.7  Geometry (A) and secondary flows (B) in helical tubes.

    1.2.1.7. Surface Tension Devices

    Wicking or grooved surfaces are able to direct the fluid flow in boiling and condensing, which intensify the heat transfer rate. The vapor chamber is one of the examples of surface tension devices which are most likely employed as a heat source/sink for cooling microelectronic equipments.

    Figure 1.8  Geometry (A) and secondary flows (B) in curved tubes.

    1.2.1.8. Additives for Liquids

    In 1873, inclusion of particles to the most common fluids, such as water, oil, and ethylene-glycol was described by Maxwell [18]. The motivation was to improve the thermal conductivity of a mixture with a solid particle which has a higher thermal conductivity. Many researchers then studied the influence of fluid additives on the potential enhancement of heat transfer. This technique, however, had some problems such as abrasion, clogging, fouling, and additional pressure loss of the system, which was inappropriate for heat transfer systems. This drawback was then solved by introducing the nano-sized particles. These nanoparticles are fairly close in size to the molecules of the base fluid and, thus, can enable extremely stable suspensions with only slight gravitational settling over long periods. Thus, nanofluids became a most promising way of fluid additives for improving the heat transfer rate.

    The current progress on theoretical modeling of nanofluids has resulted in an increased interest in explaining the thermophysical characteristics of nanofluids. It has been shown that nanoparticle migration has considerable effects on the flow and heat transfer characteristics of nanofluids, and is responsible for the abnormal heat transfer characteristics of nanofluids. Thus, many investigations have been motivated by the need to determine the detailed behavior of nanoparticle motion.

    One of the most important causes of nanoparticle migration is the thermophoresis and Brownian motion, the two important slip mechanisms in nanofluids. Fig. 1.9 demonstrates the schematic of nanoparticle migration in a parallel-plate channel subjected to two different heat fluxes [19]. As is obvious, the nanoparticle concentration has its lowest value at the top wall (a higher wall heat flux), an increase to the maximum in the region away from the wall, and then a decrease toward the bottom wall (a lower wall heat flux). This is purely due to the fact that the heat flux at the top wall is higher than at the bottom wall, so this produces a higher temperature gradient and thermophoretic force. The migration of the nanoparticles from the heated walls toward the core region forms nanoparticle-poor regions at the walls. This reduces the viscosity, as does the shear stress of the nanofluid on the walls. Hence, the velocities near the top wall, which has a lower nanoparticle concentration, increase. Thus, it can be stated that the imposed thermal asymmetry would affect nanoparticle migration and distort the velocity, temperature, and nanoparticle concentration profiles.

    Figure 1.9  Nanoparticle migration inside a parallel-plate channel in the presence of a magnetic field [19] .

    1.2.1.9. Additives for Gases

    Sprays, or liquid droplets, in both dilute-phase and dense-phase can be used for cooling microstructures efficiently. Spray cooling is a powerful heat transfer enhancement method in which an atomizing nozzle pushes a flow of droplets toward a hot surface. Comparison of spray cooling with the other phase-change cooling methods indicates that a considerably higher amount of heat can be removed at a surface by means of spray cooling.

    1.2.2. Active Techniques

    Active techniques commonly present higher augmentation though they need additional power that increases the initial capital and operational costs of the system. Descriptions for the various active techniques have been given as follows.

    1.2.2.1. Mechanical Aids

    Stirring the fluid by mechanical equipment is one of the most common methods for heat transfer enhancement. Rotating tube heat exchanger, for example, has attracted considerable attention among researchers.

    1.2.2.2. Surface Vibration

    Surface vibration will be able to augment the heat transfer rate unless in certain circumstances, when it may destroy the heat exchanger. This method is very useful in natural convection since it changes the heat rejection mode to forced convection.

    1.2.2.3. Fluid Vibration

    This technique is more practical than surface vibration since it has no negative effect on the structures of heat exchangers. This method is very useful for low Reynolds number forced convection flows.

    1.2.2.4. Electrostatic Fields

    Electrostatic fields can be implemented either by direct or alternating currents to dielectric liquids in order to enhance the mixing or disruption of fluid flow at the viscous sublayer near the surface.

    1.2.2.5. Suction/Injection

    Suction/injection methods have a direct effect on the boundary layer flow in the vicinity of the surface. For example, in film boiling, vapor removal (suction) has significant effects on the heat transfer rate.

    All in all, there are many techniques to improve the heat transfer rate and the choice of suitable method is completely dependent on circumstances. In this book, heat transfer enhancement in microchannels, three methods such as nanoparticle inclusion (liquid additives), slippery surface, and magnetic field are described and reviewed. These methods are really useful for boosting the heat transfer rate in microchannels.

    References

    [1] Bergles A.E. Recent developments in enhanced heat transfer. Heat and Mass Transfer. 2011;47:1001–1008.

    [2] Sheikholeslami M, Gorji-Bandpy M, Ganji D.D. Review of heat transfer enhancement methods: focus on passive methods using swirl flow devices. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2015;49:444–469.

    [3] Moran M, Sciubba E. Exergy analysis: principles and practice. Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power. 1994;116:285–290.

    [4] Hatami M, Boot M.D, Ganji D.D, Gorji-Bandpy M. Comparative study of different exhaust heat exchangers effect on the performance and exergy analysis of a diesel engine. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2015;90.

    [5] Bejan A. Fundamentals of exergy analysis, entropy generation minimization, and the generation of flow architecture. International Journal of Energy Research. 2002;26:0–43.

    [6] Malvandi A, Hedayati F, Ganji D.D. Thermodynamic optimization of fluid flow over an isothermal moving plate. Alexandria Engineering Journal. 2013;52:277–283.

    [7] Guo J, Xu M, Cheng L. Numerical investigations of curved square channel from the viewpoint of field synergy principle. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2011;54:4148–4151.

    [8] Tan C, Cai P, Xu L, Yang N, Xi Z, Li Q. Fabrication of superhydrophobic surface with controlled adhesion by designing heterogeneous chemical composition. Applied Surface Science. 2015;349:516–523.

    [9] Karimipour A, Hossein Nezhad A, D'Orazio A, Hemmat Esfe M, Safaei M.R, Shirani E. Simulation of copper–water nanofluid in a microchannel in slip flow regime using the lattice Boltzmann method. European Journal of Mechanics – B/Fluids. 2015;49(Part A):89–99.

    [10] Turkyilmazoglu M. Anomalous heat transfer enhancement by slip due to nanofluids in circular concentric pipes. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2015;85:609–614.

    [11] Malvandi A, Hedayati F, Ganji D.D. Slip effects on unsteady stagnation point flow of a nanofluid over a stretching sheet. Powder Technology. 2014;253:377–384.

    [12] Khan W.A, Makinde O.D, Khan Z.H. MHD boundary layer flow of a nanofluid containing gyrotactic microorganisms past a vertical plate with Navier slip. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2014;74:285–291.

    [13] Das K. Slip flow and convective heat transfer of nanofluids over a permeable stretching surface. Computers & Fluids. 2012;64:34–42.

    [14] Malvandi A, Ganji D. Brownian motion and thermophoresis effects on slip flow of alumina/water nanofluid inside a circular microchannel in the presence of a magnetic field. International Journal of Thermal Sciences. 2014;84:196–206.

    [15] Malvandi A, Ganji D.D. Magnetic field and slip effects on free convection inside a vertical enclosure filled with alumina/water nanofluid. Chemical Engineering Research and Design. 2015;94:355–364.

    [16] Hatami M, Ganji D.D. Thermal performance of circular convective–radiative porous fins with different section shapes and materials. Energy Conversion and Management. 2013;76:185–193.

    [17] Hedayati F, Ganji D.D, Hamidi S.M, Malvandi A. An analytical study on a model describing heat conduction in rectangular radial fin with temperature-dependent thermal conductivity. International Journal of Thermophysics. 2012;33:1042–1054.

    [18] Maxwell J.C. A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. second ed. Oxford, UK: Clarendon press; 1873.

    [19] Malvandi A, Ganji D.D, Kaffash M.H. Magnetic field effects on nanoparticle migration and heat transfer of alumina/water nanofluid in a parallel-plate channel with asymmetric heating. European Physical Journal Plus. 2015;130:1–21.

    2

    Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in Channels

    Abstract

    Heat transfer rate and pressure drop of laminar fluid flow inside channels are considered in this chapter. Two concepts of developing flow and fully developed flow are described as the key aspects of known results. The governing equations of laminar fluid flow in parallel-plate and circular channels are presented. Based on the different conditions, which include developing and fully developed flow, the governing equations are simplified with some conventional solutions for fluid flow in channels presented.

    Keywords

    Channel; Flow; Fully developed; Heat transfer rate; Navier-Stokes equation; Pressure drop

    2.1. Concept of Fully Developed and Developing Flow

    Developing and fully developed flow are basic concepts in fluid flow and heat transfer through channels. These concepts divide the flow into free streams and a boundary layer near the surface. Since the fluid stream is surrounded by the channel walls, the formed boundary layers at the walls may run parallel to each other for a significant length of the channel. After this length, known as the hydrodynamic or thermal entrance length, the flow becomes fully developed. In the fully developed region, hydrodynamic or thermal boundary layers arrive at the same point and travel unaffected through the channel. This concept is shown in Fig. 2.1.

    2.2. Navier-Stokes Equations

    The laminar and incompressible fluid flow in channels that obey the well-known Navier-Stokes equations is as follows:

    [2.1]

    [2.2]

    [2.3]

    where ui represents the velocity components; T represents local temperature, and p will be pressure. Eq. [2.1] represents the continuity equation, whereas Eq. [2.2] considers the momentum, and Eq. [2.3] is the energy equation. These equations are solved many

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