WEEE Recycling: Research, Development, and Policies

WEEE Recycling

Research, Development, and Policies

Edited by

A. Chagnes

Chimie ParisTech, PSL Research University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de Chimie Paris (IRCP)

Groupement de Recherche (GDR CNRS n° 3749), Paris, France

G. Cote

Chimie ParisTech, PSL Research University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de Chimie Paris (IRCP)

ParisTech Chair Urban Mining, Fondation Paristech, Paris, France

C. Ekberg

Nuclear Chemistry and Industrial Materials Recycling, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

M. Nilsson

Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California Irvine, Irvine CA, United States

T. Retegan

Nuclear Chemistry and Industrial Materials Recycling, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Introduction

Chapter 1: WEEE Management

Abstract

1. Take-back systems: a new breed of company in the economic ecosystem

2. The rules of competition between take-back systems

3. France’s choice—a role of industrial planning and innovation

4. In conclusion, a few recommendations for a general policy

Chapter 2: Dynamic Representation of Flows and Stocks of Metals in the Economy

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. MFA methodology

3. An application to rare earths in the EU

4. Discussion

5. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 3: Physical Separation Processes in Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Recycling

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. WEEE management

3. Physical separation processes

4. Examples

5. Conclusion

Chapter 4: Electrostatic Separation of Metals and Plastics From Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Electrostatic separation of metals from millimeter-size granular WEEE

3. Selective sorting of plastics from millimeter-size granular WEEE

4. Electrostatic separation of micronized WEEE

5. General conclusions

Chapter 5: Pyrometallurgical Processes for the Recovery of Metals from WEEE

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Smelting for the recovery of metals from WEEE

3. Incineration and combustion of WEEE

4. Pyrolysis of WEEE

5. Molten salt process

6. Pyrochemical (thermochemical) process

7. Conclusions

Chapter 6: Hydrometallurgical Processes for the Recovery of Metals from WEEE

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Basic principles for the hydrometallurgical separation of metals from WEEE

3. WEEE targets for hydrometallurgical processing

4. Industrial-scale operations

5. Conclusions

Abbreviations

Chapter 7: Life Cycle Assessment in WEEE Recycling

Abstract

1. Introduction to life cycle assessment

2. Life cycle assessment in WEEE management and recycling: a review

3. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Chapter 8: Concluding Remarks

Index

Copyright

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List of Contributors

A. Chagnes,     Chimie ParisTech, PSL Research University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de Chimie Paris (IRCP); Groupement de Recherche (GDR CNRS n° 3749), Paris, France

G. Cote,     Chimie ParisTech, PSL Research University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de Chimie Paris (IRCP); ParisTech Chair Urban Mining, Fondation Paristech, Paris, France

L. Dascalescu,     PPRIME Institute, University of Poitiers—ENSMA, Angoulême, France

B. Ebin,     Nuclear Chemistry and Industrial Material Recycling, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

D. Guyonnet,     BRGM, ENAG, Guillemin, Orléans, France

C. Ekberg,     Nuclear Chemistry and Industrial Materials Recycling, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

M.I. Isik,     High Temperature Materials Group, Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany

A. Iuga,     High-Intensity Electric Fields Laboratory, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

N.-E. Menad,     BRGM, Orléans Cedex 2, France

M. Nilsson,     Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California Irvine, Irvine CA, United States

M. Planchon,     BIO by Deloitte, Neuilly sur Seine, France

T. Retegan,     Nuclear Chemistry and Industrial Materials Recycling, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

G. Rodriguez-Garcia,     Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) Electrochemical Energy Storage, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Ulm, Karlsruhe, Germany

A. Rollat,     Solvay Group, La Rochelle Cedex, France

R. Toffolet,     Eco-systèmes, Courbevoie, France

J. Tuduri,     BRGM, ENAG, Guillemin, Orléans, France

C. Tunsu,     Nuclear Chemistry and Industrial Materials Recycling, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

M. Weil

Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) Electrochemical Energy Storage, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Ulm, Karlsruhe

Institute for Technology Assessment and System Analysis (ITAS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany

T. Zeghloul,     PPRIME Institute, University of Poitiers—ENSMA, Angoulême, France

Introduction

A. Chagnes*,**

G. Cote*,†

*    Chimie ParisTech, PSL Research University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de Chimie Paris (IRCP), Paris, France

**    Groupement de Recherche (GDR CNRS n° 3749), Paris, France

†    ParisTech Chair Urban Mining, Fondation Paristech, Paris, France

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) also referred to as UEEE (Used Electrical and Electronic Equipment), e-waste, or e-scrap is a generic term used to cover all items of electric and electronic equipment (EEE) and its parts that have been discarded by its owner as waste without the intend of reuse [1,2]. More or less precise definitions can be found throughout the world. For instance, according to the WEEE Directive 2012/19/EC (European Union) WEEE are defined as a category of waste, consisting of equipment at the end-of-life, powered by electricity or through electromagnetic fields and designed for use in a voltage typically not exceeding 1000 V AC and 1500 V DC [3]. They are presently divided into the ten following categories:

1. Large household appliances

2. Small household appliances

3. Information technology and telecommunications equipment

4. Consumer equipment

5. Lighting equipment

6. Electrical and electronic tools (with the exception of large-scale stationary industrial tools)

7. Toys, leisure, and sports equipment

8. Medical devices (with the exception of all implanted and infected products)

9. Monitoring and control instruments

10. Automatic dispensers

However, these ten categories will be regrouped into the six following categories by 2018 [3]:

1. Temperature exchange equipment (refrigerators, freezers, air conditioning equipment, etc.)

2. Screens, monitors, and equipment containing screen having a surface greater than 100 cm² (screens, televisions, LCD photo frames, monitors, laptops, notebooks)

3. Lamps (fluorescent lamps, sodium lamps, LED, etc.)

4. Large equipment, that is, any external dimension more than 50 cm (washing machines, dish washing, cookers, copying equipment, photovoltaic panels, etc.)

5. Small equipment, that is, no external dimension more than 50 cm (vacuum cleaners, caper sweepers, Hi-fi equipment, musical equipment, etc.)

6. Small information technology and telecommunication equipment (mobile phones, GPS, project calculators, routers, personal computers, printers, telephones).

WEEE belongs to the fastest growing waste stream in the world, with an increase from 33.8 million metric tonnes (Mt) in 2010 to 41.8 Mt in 2014 and an expected amount of about 50 Mt by 2018 [1]. The main driving forces of such a trend are explained by

• the increase of the world population (from July 2010 to July 2015, the world population has increased from 6.92 to 7.32 billion, with a possible extrapolation at 10.8 billion by 2100) [4–6],

• the rapid socio-economic development including reinforced urbanization with facilitated access to modern technologies (in 2014 the WEEE generated per capita ranged from 0.2 kg/inh. in low-income countries such as Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, etc., up to 28.3 kg/inh. in Norway [1]),

• the change in consumer patterns (eg, in March 2014 there was still nearly twice the percentage of desktop-only internet users as mobile-only users in USA, while the number of mobile-only internet users in March 2015 exceeded that of desktop-only users [7]),

• the rapid technological advancement (most US consumers used to upgrade their mobile phones after about 2 years [8]).

Various correlations can be plotted between the total amount of WEEE generated worldwide and parameters representative of the society evolution. As an example, Fig. 1 shows a linear relationship between the WEEE generated in the world per year (in Mt) and the world electric energy consumption/year over the period 2010–15, the latter being in constant increase [9].

Figure 1   WEEE generated annually in the world (Mt) versus total electricity domestic consumption/year over the period 2010–15 (TWh = Terawatt hour) (Data from [1] and [9]).

From all the aforementioned considerations, it is clear that the world WEEE stream is expected to significantly increase in the next decades. Considering that the WEEE contains in average about 2.2% (by weight) of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB), 4.6% of mineral fraction, 9.2% of residues from grinding, 44.7% of ferrous metals, 7.5% of nonferrous metals, 18.3% of plastics, 12.2% of glass, and 1.3% of other type of materials [10], there are three main reasons for their processing: environmental concerns (the total WEEE generated in 2014 is the equivalent of about 5700 Eiffel towers [in weight] and contains hazardous chemicals), energy savings, and resource efficiency via recycling of valuable materials (the intrinsic material value of global e-waste was estimated to be 48 billion euro in 2014) [1,11]. Thus, it is of particular importance to organize/optimize the management of the end-of-life of EEE. For this goal, a circular economy is being progressively developed worldwide to reduce as much as possible the volume of ultimate waste, to prevent any environmental concern (landfilling is still a common practice in some countries) and to contribute to material resources recycling (Fig. 2). Basically, a typical circular economy scheme should include end-of-life EEE/collection (Step 1—Fig. 2), WEEE treatment and material recycling (Step 2—Fig. 2), resale of recycled materials on the market (Step 3—Fig. 2), manufacturing/eco-conception (Step 4—Fig. 2), and commercialization (Step 5—Fig. 2) of new EEE or other devices.

Figure 2   Circular economy scheme.

Step 1: WEEE collection; Step 2: WEEE treatment and material recycling; Step 3: resale of recycled materials on the market; Step 4: manufacturing; Step 5: commercialization of new EEE or other devices.

In reality the circular economy scheme represented in Fig. 2 is theoretical in nature as the situations are so much contrasted throughout the world. Indeed, official take-back legislation is organized in a limited number of countries (mostly European countries) and covers only around 4 billion people (ie, about 57% of the world population) so that only 6.5 Mt of the 41.8 Mt of WEEE generated in 2014 (ie, 15% in weight) were documented and recycled with the highest standards [1].

The circular economy scheme represented in Fig. 2 is a worthwhile goal, but even in the frame of official take-back legislations, its deployment may encounter some difficulties as its various steps (1–5) constitute a value chain whose efficiency should be considered according to various criteria including societal acceptability, life cycle analysis and environmental impacts, economic considerations, raw material dependency, etc. These criteria are sometimes antagonistic. For instance, the recycling of critical raw materials [12] is obviously preferable, but their resale on the market can be difficult for various reasons including the price of recycled material compared to market price or the distance between the location of the recycling plants (eg, Europe) and the place of consumption (eg, Asia). In terms of materials dependency, Europe has logical interest to recycle critical materials such as rare elements (RE, Ta, Ga, …), but this is not necessarily the case from an economic point of view, especially as the market prices are highly fluctuant in time. This means that the recycling of given materials may be profitable at a certain period and not at another one, with the same recycling plant and technology. This is illustrated by the case of rare earths recycling from phosphors which was launched by Solvay in 2011 when the prices of RE were particularly high (136–141 US $/kg of yttrium oxide, minimum 99.999 purity) and was given up in 2016 after drop in prices (8–9 US $/kg of yttrium oxide, minimum 99.999 purity) [13]. Several studies focused on the recycling of photovoltaic panels show that the economic balance is fragile and that economic incentive may be necessary to reach the objectives targeted by the regulations [14,15]. It should be noticed that the WEEE Directive 2012/19/EC which became effective on Feb 14, 2014 requests, among others, that the minimum collection rate reaches 45% of the average weight of EEE placed on the market over the previous 3 years, as soon as 2016, with the objective of 65% in 2019 (or 85% of the amount of WEEE generated). This favors the valorization of materials present in large quantities (glass, plastics, main ferrous, and nonferrous metals (Cu, Al) to the detriment of materials present in small quantities or even at trace level (eg, LED typically contains 30 μg of indium, gallium, yttrium/unit).

The global efficiency of the chain value is not purely technical in nature. Thus, the societal aspects are also important. In particular, it is necessary that the consumers contribute voluntarily to the collection of end-of-life EEE (Step 1—Fig. 2) which is not obvious at all. The case of used cell phones for which return did not exceed 15% in 2015 is emblematic [16]. It is also necessary that the consumers accept recycled materials in new appliances. Today, recycled plastics are easily accepted in car industry, but they are not yet significantly present in other sectors such as household appliances.

Presently the chain value is not optimal, even if techniques for separation of glass, main ferrous and nonferrous metals, and plastics are reasonably operational. A possible driving force for improvement lies in technical advances. A typical example is the development of sorting techniques for black plastics and/or brominated plastics. However, in spite of this type of advances, the necessity to dismantle and/or to shred the WEEE to recover the minor elements by hydrometallurgy or bio-hydrometallurgy is a serious obstacle. For instance, today the smartphones are treated by pyrometallurgy which leads to the recovery of copper, gold, PGMs, but to the loss of gallium, indium, tantalum, etc., which concentrate in the slag [17]. Recently, Apple developed a robot for dismantling iPhone which opens the door to methods of treatment other than pyrometallurgy, typically hydrometallurgy, to recover minor elements [18]. Hydrogenation of magnets is another example of innovative techniques which may allow the recovery of rare earths from hard discs without dismantling [19]. Thus, it can be considered that the recycling of EEE is still in infancy and that the search of sustainability should integrate societal, cultural, economic, life cycle analysis, environmental, and technical perspectives.

The objective of the present book is to give an overview on these various subjects. In Chapter 1, different strategies implemented in Europe to manage spent materials from WEEE are introduced. In particular, the organization and the role of take-back systems in Europe are presented. The management of WEEE (and more generally of spent materials) must rely on a fine knowledge of flows and stocks of metals in the economy. Chapter 2 explains how a dynamic representation of flows and stocks of metals in the economy can contribute significantly to perform a rigorous and outstanding WEEE management. It is obvious that performant recycling cannot be implemented without developing innovative, efficient, and cheap processes. These processes rely on the physical separation technologies presented in Chapters 3 and 4 for metal and plastic separations as well as pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes introduced in Chapters 5 and 6, respectively. This book gives a thorough and critical review of these processes as well as the different technologies implemented or that could be implemented at the industrial scale. Last but not least, the last chapter introduces the concept of Life Cycle Assessment and gives a review about the different environmental analyses published in the literature in order to highlight the need to take into account the environmental impact besides the technological and economical approaches in the value chain.

References

[1] Baldé CP, Wang F, Kuehr R, Huisman J. The Global E-waste Monitor 2014 Quantities, flows and resources. United Nations University, IAS–SCYCLE, Bonn, Germany; 2015. Available from: https://i.unu.edu/media/unu.edu/news/52624/UNU-1stGlobal-E-Waste-Monitor-2014-small.pdf

[2] Sahadat Hossain Md, Sulala MZF, Al-Hamadani, Toufiqur Rahman Md E-waste. A challenge for sustainable development. J Health Pollut. 2015;5(9):3–11.

[3] Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Official Journal of the European Union, July 24, 2012.

[4] Worldmeters population. Available from: http://www.worldometers.info/fr/population-mondiale/

[5] The world at six billion. United Nations. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population Division. Washington, D.C., United Nations Secretariat; 1999. Available from: http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbillion.htm

[6] Croissance de la population mondiale. Available from: http://www.statistiques-mondiales.com/croissance_population.htm

[7] Lella A. Number of mobile-only Internet users now exceeds desktop-only in the U.S. Available from: http://www.comscore.com/Insights/Blog/Number-of-Mobile-Only-Internet-Users-Now-Exceeds-Desktop-Only-in-the-U.S

[8] Entner R. 2014 US Mobile Phone sales fall by 15% and handset replacement cycle lengthens to historic high. Available from: http://reconanalytics.com/2015/02/2014-us-mobile-phone-sales-fall-by-15-and-handset-replacement-cycle-lengthens-to-historic-high/

[9] Enerdata. Global Energy Statistical Yearbook 2015. Available from: https://yearbook.enerdata.net/electricity-domestic-consumption-data-by-region.html

[10] ADEME. Electric and Electronic Equipment—Annual Report. Available from: http://www.ademe.fr/sites/default/files/assets/documents/equipements-electriques-electroniques-2013-rapport-annuel.pdf

[11] Khaliq A, Akbar Rhamdhani M, Brooks G, Masood S. Metal extraction processes for electronic waste and existing industrial routes: a review and Australian perspective. Resources. 2014;3:152–179.

[12] European Commission. Critical Raw Materials. Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/raw-materials/specific-interest/critical/index_en.htm

[13] Yttrium, U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2016.

[14] McDonald NC, Pearce JM. Producer responsibility and recycling solar photovoltaic modules. Energ Policy. 2010;38:7041–7047.

[15] Redlinger M, Eggert R, Woodhouse M. Evaluating the availability of gallium, indium, and tellurium from recycled photovoltaic modules. Sol. Energ Mat Sol C. 2015;138:58–71.

[16] Tanskanen P. Electronics waste: recycling of mobile phones, 2016. Available from: http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/37110.pdf

[17] Buchert M, Manhart A, Bleher D, Pingel D. Recycling critical raw materials from waste electronic equipment. Oeko-Institut e.V. Darmstadt; 2012: Available from: http://www.oeko.de/oekodoc/1375/2012-010-en.pdf.

[18] Cooke L. Apple just unveiled a blazing fast iPhone recycling robot. Available from: http://inhabitat.com/apple-unveils-iphone-recycling-robot-and-launches-major-apple-renew-initiative/

[19] Walton A, Yi H, Rowson NA, Speight JD, Mann VSJ, Sheridan RS, Bradshaw A, Harris IR, Williams AJ. The use of hydrogen to separate and recycle neodymium–iron–boron-type magnets from electronic waste. J Clean Prod. 2015;104:236–241.

Chapter 1

WEEE Management

R. Toffolet    Eco-systèmes, Courbevoie, France

Abstract

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management consists in collecting and taking back WEEE from end users, through retailers, local authorities’ facilities, or other collection channels, and transferring it to proper treatment plants to allow compliant decontamination, dismantling, separation of homogeneous fractions, and material recovery. Following the extended producer responsibility principle, take-back systems are at the center of WEEE management in Europe. This chapter will introduce the role of these take-back systems and look into how they function through the threefold prism of status, competition, and a commitment to build up a new industry. Furthermore, it will include a critical review of current trends and policies on WEEE recycling, describe the related research agenda, and make some relevant policy recommendations.

Keywords

extended producer responsibility

take-back systems

management

organization

competition

level playing field

economic models

industrial planning

innovation

research

policy recommendations

In France, Kiki the coffee maker and Titine the drill are shown on prime-time television and voice the merits of recycling to consumers (http://www.eco-systemes.fr/, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vv_TnsYVOXI/, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NDloF7PjZdc/, 2015). Electrão does the same thing in Portugal, as does Bosco the puppet in Ireland (http://www.amb3e.pt/galeria_Videos.aspx?lang=ing&id_class=329&name=O-Electrao-no-Rock-in-Rio-2014/; http://www.amb3e.pt/, 2015; http://www.weeepledge.ie/2014/bosco-calls-on-all-the-boys-and-girls-to-recycle-for-charity/; http://www.weeeireland.ie/, 2015). In the Czech Republic there’s Asík the hedgehog and in Romania there are the Ecoterrans’ (http://www.azrodina.cz/2392-proc-zacit-s-ekologickou-vychovou-u-deti/, http://www.asekol.sk/asekol/, 2015; http://www.caravanaecotic.ro/en/about-the-ecotic-caravan/ecoterran, 2015). Today, most countries in Europe have a mascot to advocate the recycling of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).

In the media, reports are mushrooming to place on center stage spectacular images of Chinese villages smothered by toxic fumes resulting from the treatment of electrical equipment, as well as African beaches disappearing under the remains of this type of equipment once it has been plundered of all its valuable components and materials.

Hidden behind these distressing images or entertaining commercials is the reality of a new business, that of take-back systems. By watching these simplified and caricatured examples, what do consumers gain in their understanding about the complexities of this new business, the organizations which are developed for it, and the human skills that it requires?

1. Take-back systems: a new breed of company in the economic ecosystem

From the beginning of the 1980s to the end of the 1990s, the volume of urban waste rose by more than 20% and the number of treatment units, such as landfills and incinerators, increased. It was becoming increasingly difficult to site these facilities and to see how to deal in the long term with what appeared to be an ever-growing mountain of waste. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) addressed this topic in 1994 and published the epoch-making Guidance Manual for Governments in 2001 and introduced officially for the first time ever the extended producer responsibility (EPR) principle. This principle covers two main independent characteristics: (1) the transfer to manufacturers of part or all of the operational and/or economic responsibility for managing waste resulting from the end of life of their products and (2) the promotion of the eco-design of products through incentives encouraging manufacturers to take environmental aspects into account during the product’s design phase.

1.1. The role of the producers

Two other related principles exist: one described in the waste framework directive (WFD) under the name of polluter pays principle and the other which defines a hierarchy in waste treatment, preferring prevention and reuse over recycling and recovery. These principles subsequently serve as the basis for implementing recycling industries for batteries and accumulators, household packaging, end-of-life vehicles, WEEE, and the like. The cleverness of the European directives establishing these industries is to position the organization of recovering the waste concerned as a general public service by involving the whole of society. It thus differs from partial trials or local projects that may flourish in some countries and which maintain as their main driver a free market rationale that focuses on the intrinsic value of waste when deciding whether to recycle. However, in this case, the market doesn’t do everything because decontamination is very costly and doesn’t lead to a commercial service or a source of profit. Therefore, Europe has rapidly positioned itself by applying the recommendations in the EPR principle such as described by the OECD, followed by some countries such as Canada. For now, other countries such as the United States and China use ad hoc and more liberal solutions.

The WEEE industry has therefore been built by following the example given by some pioneer countries and through a regulatory framework provided by a European directive. From the 1990s onward, a few European countries began to organize the collection and the recycling of WEEE (ie, Switzerland and the countries of Northern Europe). Sweden and Norway were the first, followed by Belgium, Holland, Austria, and others. Based on the experience of these first member states and the legal European codification of the EPR principle, a first founding directive was published and enforced on Feb. 13, 2003: Directive 2002/96/EC on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of January 27, 2003, on waste