Digital Terrain Analysis in Soil Science and Geology

Digital Terrain Analysis in Soil Science and Geology

Second Edition

Igor V. Florinsky

Institute of Mathematical Problems of Biology, The Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Russia

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Preface to the Second Edition

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Chapter 1: Digital Terrain Modeling: A Brief Historical Overview

Abstract

I: Principles and Methods of Digital Terrain Modeling

Chapter 2: Topographic Surface and Its Characterization

Abstract

2.1 Topographic Surface

2.2 Local Morphometric Variables

2.3 Nonlocal Morphometric Variables

2.4 Structural Lines

2.5 Solar Morphometric Variables

2.6 Combined Morphometric Variables

2.7 Landform Classifications

Chapter 3: Digital Elevation Models

Abstract

3.1 DEM Generation

3.2 DEM Grids

3.3 DEM Resolution

3.4 DEM Interpolation

Chapter 4: Calculation Methods

Abstract

4.1 The Evans-Young Method

4.2 Calculation of Local Morphometric Variables on a Plane Square Grid

4.3 Calculation of Local Morphometric Variables on a Spheroidal Equal Angular Grid

4.4 Calculation of Nonlocal Morphometric Variables

4.5 Calculation of Structural Lines

4.6 Calculation of Solar Morphometric Variables

4.7 Calculation of Combined Morphometric Variables

Chapter 5: Errors and Accuracy

Abstract

5.1 Sources of DEM Errors

5.2 Estimation of DEM Accuracy

5.3 Calculation Accuracy of Local Morphometric Variables

5.4 Ignoring of the Sampling Theorem

5.5 The Gibbs Phenomenon

5.6 Grid Displacement

5.7 Linear Artifacts

Chapter 6: Filtering

Abstract

6.1 Tasks of DTM Filtering

6.2 Methods of DTM Filtering

6.3 Two-Dimensional Singular Spectrum Analysis

Chapter 7: Universal Analytical Modeling

Abstract

7.1 Motivation

7.2 Method

7.3 Algorithm

7.4 Materials and Data Processing

7.5 Results and Discussion

Chapter 8: Mapping and Visualization

Abstract

8.1 Peculiarities of Morphometric Mapping

8.2 Combined Visualization of Morphometric Variables

8.3 Cross Sections

8.4 Three-Dimensional Topographic Modeling

8.5 Combining Hill-Shaded Maps With Soil and Geological Data

8.6 Virtual Globes

II: Digital Terrain Modeling in Soil Science

Chapter 9: Influence of Topography on Soil Properties

Abstract

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Local Morphometric Variables and Soil

9.3 Nonlocal Morphometric Variables and Soil

9.4 Discussion

Chapter 10: Adequate Resolution of Models

Abstract

10.1 Motivation

10.2 Theory

10.3 Field Study

Chapter 11: Predictive Soil Mapping

Abstract

11.1 The Dokuchaev Hypothesis as a Central Idea of Soil Predictions

11.2 Early Models

11.3 Current Predictive Methods

11.4 Topographic Multivariable Approach

Chapter 12: Analyzing Relationships in the Topography-Soil System

Abstract

12.1 Motivation

12.2 Study Sites

12.3 Materials and Methods

12.4 Results and Discussion

III: Digital Terrain Modeling in Geology

Chapter 13: Folds and Folding

Abstract

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Fold Geometry and Fold Classification

13.3 Predicting the Degree of Fold Deformation and Fracturing

13.4 Folding Models and the Theorema Egregium

Chapter 14: Lineaments and Faults

Abstract

14.1 Motivation

14.2 Theory

14.3 Method Validation

14.4 Two Case Studies

Chapter 15: Accumulation Zones and Fault Intersections

Abstract

15.1 Motivation

15.2 Study Area

15.3 Materials and Methods

15.4 Results and Discussion

Chapter 16: Global Topography and Tectonic Structures

Abstract

16.1 Motivation

16.2 Materials and Data Processing

16.3 Results and Discussion

Chapter 17: Concluding Remarks

Appendix A: LandLord—A Brief Description of the Software

References

Index

Copyright

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Preface to the Second Edition

Originally, this book was the first attempt to synthesize knowledge on the theory, methods, and applications of digital terrain analysis in the context of multiscale problems in soil science and geology. The content of this book is based on the author’s long-standing, interdisciplinary research.

Since the preparation of the first edition in 2010–11, considerable progress has been made in digital terrain modeling. This happened due to several factors. First, new, publicly available, sources of digital elevation models (DEMs) with high- and medium-resolution and global or quasi-global coverage have appeared (ie, SRTM1, SRTM15_PLUS, WorldDEM, ALOS World 3D, and LOLA). Second, novel, relatively low-cost, solutions for DEM generation have been designed (ie, structure-from-motion techniques, and UAV photogrammetry). Third, new and advanced computational methods for derivation of topographic variables have been developed. Finally, free and open-sourced, professional-level, software has emerged (eg, QGIS and Blender), which can be adapted to solve various geomorphometric tasks. These factors have necessitated the preparation of a second edition of this book.

In this second edition, several changes have been made to the structure of the book. Chapter 2 has been completely rewritten and merged with the former Appendix A. This allows us to represent the mathematical theory of the topographic surface more uniformly. Chapter 3 (DEM generation methods) and Chapter 4 (computational methods) have been substantially expanded and amended. A new Chapter 7, on analytical, polynomial-based terrain modeling, has been added. A new section concerning virtual globes has been added to Chapter 8. Chapter 16 has been updated using a new Lunar DEM from the LOLA mission. The number of illustrations has been increased by 50% (155 figures versus 108 in the first edition). The list of references has been substantially updated and amended (1285 references versus 1028 in the first edition).

This book is addressed to geomorphometrists, soil scientists, geologists, geoscientists, geomorphologists, geographers, and GIS scientists (at scholar, lecturer, and postgraduate student levels, with mathematical skills). This book is also intended for GIS practitioners in industry and research laboratories focusing on geoscientific and soil research. This book can also serve as a textbook for advanced undergraduate or graduate level courses on the subject.

The book is divided into three parts. Part I represents the main concepts, principles, and methods of digital terrain modeling. Part II discusses various aspects of the use of digital terrain analysis in soil science. Part III looks at applications of digital terrain modeling in geology.

Chapter 1 presents a brief historical overview of the progress of geomorphometry and digital terrain analysis in the context of soil and geological studies. It is demonstrated that there are four main research trends in soil- and geology-oriented digital terrain modeling: (1) analysis and modeling of relationships between soil properties and topographic characteristics; (2) use of the resulting data and knowledge in the predictive mapping of soil properties; (3) analysis of forms of geological features, such as folds and domes; and (4) the revealing, and the analysis, of lineaments and faults, as well as their relationships with other components of geosystems.

Part I comprises seven chapters: Chapters 2–8.

Chapter 2 discusses the basic notions of digital terrain modeling and geomorphometry. First, we introduce the concept of the topographic surface, as well as the notion of a morphometric variable. We discuss slope lines, flow lines, and special and nonspecial points on the topographic surface. Then, we present definitions, formulae, and physical meanings for five main groups of morphometric variables, such as local, nonlocal, solar, and combined attributes, as well as structural lines. In particular, we represent the derivation of formulae for gradient, aspect, plan curvature, horizontal curvature, vertical curvature, unsphericity, rotor, difference curvature, ring curvature, accumulation curvature, the generating function, and insolation. Finally, we discuss three key types of landform classifications: the Gaussian classification, the Efremov-Krcho classification, and the Shary classification, based on local morphometric variables.

In Chapter 3, we first present a review of techniques used to produce DEMs. Specifically, we mention conventional topographic surveys, kinematic global navigation satellite system techniques, stereophotogrammetry, structure from motion techniques, laser altimetry, synthetic aperture radar techniques, echo sounding, satellite radar altimetry, airborne optical sensing of bathymetry, soil and geological core drilling, three-dimensional seismic surveys, ice penetrating radio-echo sounding, and the digitizing of contours, as well as the fusion of elevation data from different sources. Second, we describe the main types of DEM grids: plane irregular and regular grids, as well as spheroidal regular grids. DEM datums and coordinate systems are briefly mentioned. Third, we discuss issues of DEM resolution, in particular, the fundamental sampling theorem and its three consequences. Finally, there is a brief review of interpolation methods used in digital terrain analysis.

Chapter 4 deals with calculation methods for digital terrain modeling. First, we describe the Evans-Young method: a conventional finite-difference technique that computes local topographic attributes. Second, we present two methods in which to derive models of local morphometric variables from DEMs based on plane square grids and spheroidal equal angular grids. The method for plane square grids uses the approximation of a third-order polynomial to the 5 × 5 moving window by the least squares. This method can be employed in soil and geological studies at field, watershed, and regional scales. The method for spheroidal equal angular grids is based on the approximation of a second-order polynomial to the 3 × 3 moving window by the least squares. This method is intended for geological and soil studies at regional, continental, and global scales. Finally, we briefly review techniques on computing nonlocal and combined morphometric variables on plane square grids and spheroidal equal angular grids, as well as approaches to detect structural lines, including calculation of the generating function.

Chapter 5 investigates the problem of errors and accuracy in digital terrain models (DTMs). First, we look at sources and types of DEM errors, as well as methods for their detection and analysis. Second, we describe a method to estimate the calculation accuracy of digital models of local morphometric attributes, using the criterion of the root mean square error of a function of measured variables. Third, we discuss DTM errors responsible for artificial landforms and, hence, critical for DTM-based geological studies. Such artifacts are caused by: (1) the ignoring of the sampling theorem; (2) the Gibbs phenomenon; and (3) discretization errors due to grid displacement. Finally, we explore intrinsic properties of local morphometric variables as a possible cause of orthogonal and diagonal linear artifacts.

Chapter 6 considers various aspects of DTM filtering. There are three main tasks of DTM filtering: (1) DTM decomposition, that is, separation of high- and low-frequency components of the topographic surface in order to study its structure and elements on different scales; (2) DTM denoising; and (3) DTM generalization. We briefly describe the main methods of DTM filtering: trend-surface analysis, the Filosofov method, two-dimensional (2D) discrete Fourier transform, 2D discrete wavelet transform, smoothing, row and column elimination from DTMs, and the cutting method. The algorithm for the 2D singular spectrum analysis is described in detail, and is exemplified by a portion of the Northern Andes.

There are three main mathematical problems in digital terrain analysis: (1) DEM interpolation; (2) DEM generalization and denoising; and (3) computation of morphometric variables through calculating the partial derivatives of elevation. Traditionally, these three problems are solved separately by means of procedures implemented in different methods and algorithms. In Chapter 7, we present a universal analytical method based on high-order orthogonal expansions using Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind with the subsequent Fejér summation. This method is intended for the processing of regularly spaced DEMs within a single framework, including DEM global approximation, denoising, generalization, and calculating of the partial derivatives of elevation. This method is exemplified by a portion of the Great Rift Valley and the Central Highlands of Kenya. The test results demonstrate that this method is characterized by a good performance (ie, a distinct monotonic convergence of the approximation) and high-speed data processing. This method can become an effective alternative to the common techniques of DEM processing.

Chapter 8 examines the peculiarities of DTM visualization. For the correct perception of morphometric maps, it is reasonable (1) to apply layer tinting; (2) to subdivide values of morphometric variables into intervals relative to the zero value; (3) to select contrast color schemes; and (4) to employ a logarithmic transform. We briefly describe some approaches toward DTM visualization: the combined display of several morphometric variables on a single map, construction of cross sections and 3D models, as well as superimposition of geological and soil information on hill-shaded maps. Finally, we discuss virtual globes, and represent the first testing version of the system of virtual morphometric globes for Earth, Mars, and the Moon.

Part II consists of four chapters: Chapters 9–12.

It is well known that topography is one of the soil-forming factors. Chapter 9 discusses the main regularities of the influence of topography on spatial distribution of soil properties, exemplified by soil moisture content. In particular, we explain the role of slope gradient and aspect; horizontal, vertical, and mean curvatures; as well as the catchment area and topographic index.

The central problem of the combined analysis of DTMs and soil data is the selection of the correct value for the DTM grid spacing. Chapter 10 describes a method in determining adequate grid spacing based on the concept of representative elementary volume. The method includes the following steps: (1) deriving a set of DTMs using different values for the grid spacing; (2) analyzing correlations between a soil property and a morphometric variable, calculated with different values for the grid spacing; (3) plotting a graph of correlation coefficients between the soil property and the morphometric variable versus the grid spacing values; and (4) finding smooth portions of the graph, indicating intervals of adequate grid spacing. This method is exemplified by the study of relationships between topography and soil moisture.

Chapter 11 looks at predictive soil mapping, a growing branch of soil science. It is demonstrated that Vasily Dokuchaev explicitly defined its central idea, and made a statement of the problem in 1886. In predictive soil mapping, it is common to use morphometric variables as key predictors of soil properties. We briefly review predictive soil-mapping methods developed in the precomputer era. Then, we present a classification and a brief review of predictive soil-mapping methods based on digital terrain modeling, and various mathematical approaches (ie, multiple regression analysis, hybrid geostatistical approaches, fuzzy logic, discriminant analysis, artificial neural networks, decision trees, etc.). We also discuss problems with small-scale soil prediction, and the upscaling of relationships in the system of topography-soil. Finally, we describe our approach toward mapping the spatial distribution of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil, based on digital terrain modeling and multiple regression analysis.

Chapter 12 presents two case studies on DTM-based analysis of relationships between topography and soil. Study sites were located in the Canadian prairies. We studied: (1) temporal variability with the influence of topography on soil properties; (2) changes in the influence of topography on soil dynamic properties, depending on the soil layer depth; and (3) the effect of topography on the activity of denitrifiers under different soil moisture conditions. We demonstrate that: (a) the spatial distribution of soil dynamic properties depends on topographic variables only if soil moisture content is higher than some threshold value; (b) the dependence of soil dynamic properties on morphometric attributes may both decrease and increase, as the soil layer depth increases; and (c) there exists temporal variability in the relationships between the spatial distribution of soil dynamic properties and morphometric attributes.

Part III includes four chapters: Chapters 13–16.

Folds of various scales are the most abundant and studied geological features. Chapter 13 probes into the applications of data on curvatures of the land and stratigraphic surfaces in research on folds and folding processes. In particular, such data are used: (1) to describe the geometry of folds and to classify folds; (2) to predict the degree of fold deformation and strain, as well as the fracture orientation and fracture density of folded strata; and (3) to estimate the degree of plasticity of the folds, and to reconstruct paleotopography, using Gauss’s Theorema Egregium.

Lineaments are usually associated with faults and linear zones of fracturing, bending deformation, and increased permeability of the crust. Chapter 14 describes a method to reveal and classify topographically expressed lineaments. This method is based on the derivation of horizontal and vertical curvatures from DEMs of the land or stratigraphic surfaces. Lineaments revealed on horizontal curvature maps are associated with faults formed mostly by horizontal tectonic movements (ie, strike-slip faults). Lineaments recognized through the mapping of vertical curvature relate to faults formed mainly by vertical motions (ie, dip-slip and reverse faults) and thrusting. Lineaments recorded on maps of both horizontal and vertical curvatures indicate, as a rule, oblique-slip and gaping faults. The method is validated using artificial DEMs with modeled faults. Finally, we present results of this method’s implementation for a seismically active, mountainous terrain (the Crimean Peninsula), and a platform plain region (the Kursk nuclear power plant area).

In many ways, topography controls the gravity-driven, overland and intrasoil transport of water. At the same time, valley networks, determining principal routes of overland flows, can often be connected with fault networks, which serve as pathways for the upward transport of groundwater. For tectonic terrains, it has been established that topographically expressed zones of flow accumulation, as a rule, coincide with sites of fault intersections due to increased rock fracturing. Chapter 15 looks at relationships between zones of flow accumulation and natural phenomena a priori associated with fault intersections (ie, sites of intensive rock fracturing, and sites of springs/boreholes with abnormally high discharges). This analysis was performed for the Crimean Peninsula. It was found that the phenomena under study were spatially correlated with the location of the accumulation zones. This testifies that, in accumulation zones, soil moisture depends on both the upward transport of deep groundwater, and the accumulation of overland lateral water flows. In other words, topographically expressed accumulation zones/fault intersections are areas of contact and interaction between overland and deep substance flows.

In the past few decades, there have been proposals suggesting that hidden global linear (helical) structures exist, which are tectonically and topographically expressed. Chapter 16 examines this hypothesis using spheroidal digital terrain modeling and global DEMs of Earth, Mars, Venus, and the Moon. Local and nonlocal topographic variables were calculated and mapped for the entire surface of these planetary bodies. Digital terrain analysis provided support for the existence of global lineaments: on catchment area maps of Earth, it was possible to detect five mutually symmetrical pairs of helical structures encircling the planet from pole to pole. On catchment area maps of Mars and Venus, it was also possible to detect several helical structures. All these structures are apparently associated with traces of planetary rotational stresses.

Chapter 17 concludes the book, summarizing its main themes.

Appendix A briefly describes the software LandLord intended for digital terrain analysis.

I would appreciate receiving readers’ suggestions and the pointing out of errors.

Igor V. Florinsky, Pushchino, February 2016

Acknowledgments

This book is mostly based on my research conducted from 1989 to 2015 in two institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences: the Institute of Soil Science and Photosynthesis, and the Institute of Mathematical Problems of Biology (Pushchino, Moscow Region), as well as in two Canadian organizations: the Manitoba Land Resource Unit, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada; and the Department of Soil Science, University of Manitoba (Winnipeg, MB).

Section 6.3 is based on collaborative work with N.E. Golyandina and K.D. Usevich. Chapter 7 includes some results obtained in collaboration with A.N. Pankratov. Section 8.6 is based on my collaboration with S.V. Filippov. Soil data used in Section 10.3 were collected together with G.A. Kuryakova and P.A. Shary. Chapter 12 includes selected results from collaborative studies with R.G. Eilers, G.R. Manning, D.L. Burton, and S.K. McMahon.

I am grateful to all my colleagues for their assistance, criticism, and enthusiasm.

The work on the second edition was partly supported by RFBR grant 15-07-02484.

I thank Liza for her patience and help.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

API application programming interface

ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer

AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

AUV autonomous underwater vehicle

BGE Blender Game Engine

DEM digital elevation model

DSM digital soil mapping

DSM digital surface model

DTED Digital Terrain Elevation Data

DTM digital terrain model

D8 Eight-node single-flow direction

ERS European Remote-Sensing Satellite

ET eigentriple

GEBCO General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans

GIS geographical information system

GLONASS Global’naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema

GMTED Global Multi-Resolution Terrain Elevation Data

GNSS global navigation satellite system

GPS global positioning system

IBCAO International Bathymetric Chart of the Arctic Ocean

IBCSO International Bathymetric Chart of the Southern Ocean

ICESat Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite

InSAR interferometric synthetic aperture radar

KML Keyhole Markup Language

K-S Kolmogorov-Smirnov

LiDAR light detection and ranging

LOLA Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter

LRO Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

MFD multiple-flow direction

MOLA Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter

MSS Multispectral Scanner

OpenGL Open Graphics Library

PDS Planetary Data System

R² coefficient of determination

RES radio-echo sounding

RTK real time kinematic

RMSE root mean square error

SAR synthetic aperture radar

SfM structure-from-motion

SPOT Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre

SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission

SSA singular spectrum analysis

TanDEM-X TerraSAR-X add-on for Digital Elevation Measurement

TIN triangulated irregular network

UAV unmanned aerial vehicle

UTM Universal Transverse Mercator

UV axes of the 2D texture in 3D graphics

WebGL Web Graphics Library

1D one-dimensional

2D two-dimensional

2D-SSA two-dimensional singular spectrum analysis

3D three-dimensional

4D four-dimensional

A slope aspect

CA catchment area

DA dispersive area

E difference curvature

g, h, k, and m the third partial derivatives of elevation

ġ gravitational acceleration constant

g gravitational acceleration vector

gt tangential component of the gravitational acceleration vector

gn normal component of the gravitational acceleration vector

G slope gradient

H mean curvature

i, j, and k unit vectors in the directions of x-, y- and z-axes

I insolation

IS shape index

K Gaussian curvature

Ka accumulation curvature

kh horizontal curvature

khe horizontal excess curvature

kmax maximal curvature

kmin minimal curvature

kp plan curvature

Kr ring curvature

kv vertical curvature

kve vertical excess curvature

M unsphericity

Moist soil moisture

n a unit external normal vector

N a set of nonspecial points

p and q the first partial derivatives of elevation

r, s, and t the second partial derivatives of elevation

R reflectance

rot rotor

SCA specific catchment area

SDA specific dispersive area

SI stream power index

T generating function

TI topographic index

w square grid spacing

z elevation

 Laplacian

Chapter 1

Digital Terrain Modeling

A Brief Historical Overview

Abstract

This chapter presents a brief historical overview of the progress of digital terrain modeling in the context of soil and geological studies. It is demonstrated that, at present, there are four main research trends in soil- and geology-oriented digital terrain modeling: (1) analysis and modeling of relationships between soil properties and topographic characteristics; (2) the use of data and knowledge in predictive mapping of soil properties; (3) analysis of the forms of geological features, such as folds and domes; and (4) revealing and, analysis of, lineaments and faults, as well as their relationships with other components of geosystems.

Keywords

Geomorphometry; Digital elevation model; Digital terrain model; Topography; Geology; Soil.

Topography is one of the main factors controlling processes taking place in the near-surface layer of the planet (Huggett and Cheesman, 2002). In particular, topography is one of the soil forming factors (Dokuchaev, 1883; Zakharov, 1913; Neustruev, 1927; Jenny, 1941; Huggett, 1975; Fridland, 1976; Gerrard, 1981; Schaetzl and Anderson, 2005) because it influences:

1. Climatic and meteorological characteristics, which control hydrological and thermal regimes of soils (Geiger, 1927; Romanova, 1977; Kondratyev et al., 1978; Raupach and Finnigan, 1997; Böhner and Antonić, 2009)

2. Prerequisites for gravity-driven overland and intrasoil lateral transport of water and other substances (Kirkby and Chorley, 1967; Young, 1972; Speight, 1980)

3. Spatial distribution of vegetation cover (Yaroshenko, 1961; Franklin, 1995)

At the same time, being a result of the interaction of endogenous and exogenous processes of different scales, topography reflects the geological structure of a terrain (Penck, 1924; Gerasimov, 1959; Meshcheryakov, 1965; Ollier, 1981; Ufimtsev, 1988; Scheidegger, 2004; Lopatin, 2008; Brocklehurst, 2010; Burbank and Anderson, 2012).

In this connection, qualitative and quantitative topographic information is widely used in the geosciences. Before the 1990s, topographic maps were the main source of quantitative information on topography. They were analyzed using geomorphometric¹ techniques to calculate manually morphometric variables (eg, slope gradient, drainage density, horizontal curvature) and produce morphometric maps (Vakhtin, 1930; Weinberg, 1934a; Chentsov, 1940; Horton, 1945; Volkov, 1950; Strahler, 1957; Clarke, 1966; Devdariani, 1967; Pannekoek, 1967; Mark, 1975b; Gardiner and Park, 1978; Stepanov et al., 1984; Lastochkin, 1987). Conventional geomorphometric techniques have received wide acceptance in geological studies (Berlyant, 1966) to represent graphically the shape of deposits (Sobolevsky, 1932), to explore oil/gas-bearing and ore-controlling structures (Levorsen, 1927; Filosofov, 1960; Murray, 1968; Volchanskaya, 1981; Guberman et al., 1997), to analyze the block structure of the earth's crust (Orlova, 1975; Glasko and Rantsman, 1996), to study seismicity (Gelfand et al., 1972), and so on. In soil science, conventional geomorphometric techniques have been used to investigate relationships between soil cover and topography (Dokuchaev, 1891; Ototzky, 1901), to predict quantitative soil properties (Romanova, 1963, 1970, 1971), to produce soil maps (Anisimov et al., 1977; Stepanov et al., 1987, 1998; Stepanov, 1989; Stepanov and Loshakova, 1998), and to study regularities in the structure of the soil cover and its relations with geological features (Filatov, 1927; Stepanov and Sabitova, 1983; Kuryakova and Florinsky, 1991; Stepanov, 1996).

In the mid-1950s, a new research field—digital terrain modeling—emerged in photogrammetry (Rosenberg, 1955). Within its framework, digital elevation models (DEMs), two-dimensional discrete functions of elevation, became the main source of information on topography. DEMs were used to calculate digital terrain models (DTMs), two-dimensional discrete functions of morphometric variables. Initially, digital terrain modeling was mainly applied to produce raised-relief maps using computer-controlled milling machines (Spooner et al., 1957; Lyubkov and Martynenko, 1963), and to design highways and railways (Miller and Leflamme, 1958; Konovalov, 1960).

Subsequent advances in computer, space, and geophysical technologies were responsible for the transition from conventional geomorphometry to digital terrain modeling² (Evans, 1972; Koshkarev, 1982; Burrough, 1986; Dikau, 1988; Serbenyuk, 1990). This was supported by the development of the physical and mathematical theory of the topographic surface³ in gravity (Krcho, 1973; Evans, 1979; Shary, 1991, 1995; Koenderink and van Doorn, 1994; Rudy, 1999; Shary et al., 2002b). Currently, digital terrain modeling is widely used to solve various multiscale problems of geomorphology, hydrology, remote sensing, soil science, geology, geophysics, geobotany, glaciology, oceanology, climatology, planetology, and other disciplines—see reviews (McCullagh, 1988; Moore et al., 1991; Shary et al., 1991; Weibel and Heller, 1991; Band, 1993; Franklin, 1995; Florinsky, 1998b; Pike, 1995, 2000, 2001; Deng, 2007; Brocklehurst, 2010), books (Felicísimo, 1994a; Wilson and Gallant, 2000; El-Sheimy et al., 2005; Li et al., 2005; Hengl and Reuter, 2009), and bibliography (Pike, 2002). Digital terrain modeling evolved into the science of quantitative modeling and analysis of the topographic surface and relationships between topography and other natural and artificial components of geosystems.⁴

As early as the 1960s, soil science and geology began to use methods of digital terrain modeling. Two DTM-based research avenues arose at that time:

• Analysis of the influence of topography on the formation of soil properties. In that period, the first attempts were made to model soil properties with digital topographic data (Troeh, 1964; Walker et al., 1968).

• Study of geological structures using DEMs of both the land surface and stratigraphic surfaces (Muñoz-Espinoza, 1968; Abelsky and Lastochkin, 1969; Robinson et al., 1969). One of the pioneering works was conducted by Belonin and Zhukov (1968), who studied an uplift evolution of an elevated block using digital models of the Gaussian, mean, and principal curvatures of geological surfaces.

Although the first effective methods to calculate morphometric variables were developed in the 1970s–80s (Young, 1978; Evans, 1979; Zevenbergen and Thorne, 1987; Jenson and Domingue, 1988; Martz and de Jong, 1988), digital terrain modeling was still relatively uncommon in soil and geological studies of this period. In the 1980s, however, two mentioned DTM-based research trends were further developed in both soil science (Sinai et al., 1981; Burt and Butcher, 1985; Kachanoski et al., 1985a,b; Pennock et al., 1987) and geology (Moore and Simpson, 1983; Schowengerdt and Glass, 1983; Onorati et al., 1987; Zeilik et al., 1989). In the 1990s, the widespread use of personal computers was responsible for the mass transition from conventional geomorphometric techniques to digital terrain analysis in both soil science and geology.

In the first 15 years of the 21st century, advances in aerial, space, and geophysical technologies opened new horizons for digital terrain modeling. First, high-resolution DEMs of the land surface became available due to the progress in kinematic GPS survey, LiDAR aerial survey, and structure-from-motion techniques (Tarolli, 2014). Second, quasi-global DEMs with the medium resolution of 1″—SRTM1 and ASTER GDEM—were produced using satellite surveys (Farr et al., 2007; Hato et al., 2009). Free public access to these materials via Internet (USGS, 2015) extended the capabilities to conduct DTM-based geological and soil studies at various scales. Third, the release of three new bathymetric DEMs—IBCAO v3, IBCSO v1, and GEBCO_2014 (Jakobsson et al., 2012; Arndt et al., 2013; Weatherall et al., 2014)—offered new opportunities for carrying regional marine geological research. Fourth, global DEMs SRTM30_PLUS and SRTM15_PLUS with the resolution of 30″ and 15″, correspondingly (Becker et al., 2009; Sandwell et al., 2014), provided a framework for tectonic investigations at regional, continental, and global scales. Finally, the advances in three-dimensional seismic survey (Chopra and Marfurt, 2005, 2007a) enhanced the production of DEMs of geological (stratigraphic) surfaces.

Currently, there are four main research trends in soil- and geology-oriented digital terrain modeling:

1. Analysis and modeling of relations between soil properties and topographic characteristics (Chapters 9, 10, and 12)

2. Use of the resulting data and knowledge in predictive mapping of soil properties (Chapters 11 and 12)

3. Analysis of forms of geological features, such as folds and domes (Chapter 13)

4. Revealing and analysis of lineaments and faults, as well as their relations with other components of geosystems (Chapters 14–16)

Methods of digital terrain modeling are also used in three research fields, which, from the formal point of view, are associated with geology. However, they have a closer connection with adjacent research areas, and hence they are not discussed in this book:

1. Study of geodynamics as a factor of terrain evolution (Codilean et al., 2006; Brocklehurst, 2010; Burbank and Anderson, 2012, chap. 11). This is the subject of tectonic geomorphology.

2. Analysis of microtopography of geological samples (Pollard et al., 2004). To carry out such works, researchers use superdetailed DTMs with resolution of about 0.2 mm. This scientific field is close to industrial surface metrology (Pike, 2001).

3. Study of geophysical fields using approaches of digital terrain modeling (eg, Rybakov et al., 2003). This research trend is, in fact, a modification of the well-known geophysical method of second derivatives (Elkins, 1951).

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☆ "To view the full reference list for the book, click here"

¹ Pike (2000, p. 1) defines geomorphometry as the quantitative study of topography.

² Pike (2000, p. 1) notes that geomorphometry is known variously as terrain analysis or quantitative geomorphology, although the newer term digital terrain modeling increasingly seems preferred.

³ For the definition of the term topographic surface, see Section 2.1.

⁴ A detailed historical overview of digital terrain modeling can be found elsewhere (Pike et al., 2009).

I

Principles and Methods of Digital Terrain Modeling

Chapter 2

Topographic Surface and Its Characterization

Abstract

This chapter discusses the basic physical and mathematical concepts of digital terrain analysis. First, we introduce the notion of the topographic surface and its limitations. Second, we discuss contour lines, special and nonspecial points, slope lines, and flow lines. Third, we present definitions, formulae, and physical meanings for five main groups of morphometric variables, such as local, nonlocal, solar, and combined attributes, as well as structural lines. In particular, we present the derivation of formulae for slope gradient, aspect, plan curvature, horizontal curvature, vertical curvature, unsphericity curvature, rotor, difference curvature, ring curvature, accumulation curvature, the generating function, and insolation. Finally, we discuss three key types of landform classifications: the Gaussian classification, the Efremov-Krcho classification, and the Shary classification.

Keywords

Topography; Surface; Geomorphometry; Morphometric variable; Slope line; Flow line; Special points; Gradient; Aspect; Insolation; Curvature; Structural line; Classification; Landform

Outline

2.1 Topographic Surface

2.1.1 Definition and Limitations

2.1.2 Contour Lines and Special Points

2.1.3 Morphometric Variable and Its Types

2.2 Local Morphometric Variables

2.2.1 Overview

2.2.2 Gradient

2.2.3 Aspect

2.2.4 Curvatures

2.2.5 Generating Function

2.3 Nonlocal Morphometric Variables

2.4 Structural Lines

2.5 Solar Morphometric Variables

2.5.1 Reflectance

2.5.2 Insolation

2.6 Combined Morphometric Variables

2.7 Landform Classifications

2.7.1 Gaussian Classification

2.7.2 The Concept of Accumulation Zones. The Efremov-Krcho Classification

2.7.3 The Shary Classification

2.1 Topographic Surface

2.1.1 Definition and Limitations

In this book, we consider the following types of real surfaces studied in geosciences:

1. Land topography (the surface between the lithosphere and atmosphere)

2. Submarine topography (the surface between the lithosphere and hydrosphere, or seabed, or ocean floor)

3. Glacial surface (the surface between the glaciosphere and atmosphere)

4. Subglacial topography (the