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Pioneers of Islamic Scholarship
Pioneers of Islamic Scholarship
Pioneers of Islamic Scholarship
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Pioneers of Islamic Scholarship

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Over the fourteen centuries of its existence, Islamic scholarship has produced numerous individuals who have distinguished themselves by acquiring broad knowledge and deep insight. However, true distinction is only achieved through a lasting influence. Therefore this selection of merited individuals has to start with the founders of the eight schools of jurisprudence who have had a continuous following for centuries.
LanguageEnglish
Release dateOct 12, 2013
ISBN9780860375821
Pioneers of Islamic Scholarship
Author

Adil Salahi

Adil Salahi is a scholar, author and translator, who has written or translated into English various books on Islam. After working for the BBC Arabic Service for several years, he worked for the Arabic daily, al-Sharq al-Awsat. He continues to publish many Articles in various Publications including , Arab News, a an English daily published in Saudi Arabia. Adil Salahi taught at the Markfield Institute of Higher Education, Leicester, England. His popular biography of the Prophet, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, is widely respected and has been translated into multiple languages.

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    Pioneers of Islamic Scholarship - Adil Salahi

    Introduction

    UNTIL RECENTLY, PEOPLE felt that following a school of Islamic jurisprudence, or Fiqh, was a basic Islamic requirement. Indeed, in many parts of the Muslim world, people still think that it is necessary for them to adhere to their own schools of Fiqh. When they put a question to a scholar, they do not forget to tell him to which school they belong, asking him to give them the answer in accordance with their school. While they respect the other schools, they may feel uneasy if they were to know that a certain practice they have been doing is approved by other schools, but not their own. Thus, a person who has been brought up as a Ḥanafī may feel uneasy about combining prayers when travelling, and would not do it unless he finds no alternative, such as having to take a flight that allows him no chance of attending to his prayers without combining two of them together, which is perfectly acceptable according to all other schools.

    Other people are more relaxed about this, and they feel that the views of the four major schools are acceptable. Hence, they do not mind to receive a ruling based on a different school to their own, provided that it is one of the four. Yet hardly anyone, apart from people with Islamic studies background, knows anything about the differences that distinguish each school from the rest, let alone the reasons for such differences. Nor are the majority of people aware that beyond the four schools of Fiqh there are others which continue to be followed by millions of Muslims in different parts of the world, and are recognized by the great seats of learning.

    Little do most Muslims realize that they do not actually follow any school of Fiqh. In everyday matters, such as prayers and fasting, people follow the practices they learnt in childhood. When they are facing a special situation, they put it to a scholar who will look into it and also into the circumstances of the individual putting the question. He will give the answer that is most suitable for that person in his special circumstances. Unless he does so, he is not a scholar worth his salt. Which school of Fiqh upholds this view is not an issue. The issue is what serves the interests of the questioner best, as long as it complies with Islamic directives and teachings and does not encroach on what God has forbidden.

    Yet the fact that we have four, or indeed five Sunnī schools of Fiqh, is an accident of history. We could have easily added two or six more. The fact is that the four schools were established within a short period of each other. Abū Ḥanīfah and Mālik were born towards the end of the first century, and Aḥmad, the youngest of the four Imāms, was born in 164 H. In the same period there were many other scholars of similar standing, such as al-Awzā ī and al-Layth ibn Sa d. Of the latter, Imām al-Shāfi ī says: "Al-Layth is a greater scholar of Fiqh than Mālik, although his students did not carry his learning further." Al-Shāfi ī certainly knew what he was talking about. He was Mālik’s disciple for nine years, and he lived the last five years of his life in Egypt where al-Layth lived most of his life. Moreover, the comparison is not a wild one. Both Mālik and al-Layth were close colleagues studying under the same teachers.

    Al-Shāfi ī’s comment points out the making of a school of Fiqh: a great scholar of very broad knowledge enjoying an independent, analytical mind and broad vision, and then a succession of scholars of merit who carry his methodology further over several generations. What has lost us a wealth of knowledge made by great scholars like al-Awzā ī, al-Layth, Ibn Abī Laylā, Sufyān and many others is the fact that they were not followed by good scholars to benefit by their heritage and carry it further.

    This book introduces the founders of eight schools of Islamic jurisprudence, or Fiqh: the five Sunnī schools, i.e. the well-known four as well as the Zāhirī school, the two Shī ah schools and the Ibādī school. These are all schools of Fiqh that continue to be followed by millions of Muslims throughout the world. We show their interaction and how they benefited from one another. We also provide a glimpse of the basis of their methodologies, without discussing any issues of Fiqh that they address.

    In each school there were many scholars of great eminence who contributed a great deal to their development so as to be able to address issues that may spring up from time to time, or to take into account new discoveries or scientific contributions. The temptation to broaden the scope of the book so as to introduce one or two scholars of each school was very strong indeed. But we had to resist it so that the book remains handy and serves English readers who wish to have a fair idea about the schools of Fiqh, without the need to go deep into the factors that contribute to the emergence of such schools. Nevertheless, within our defined parameters we also include short notes on other scholars who were teachers or predecessors of the ones we introduce.

    However, we felt a strong need to add two more scholars: al- Izz ibn Abd al-Salām and Ibn Taymiyyah. Both made great and varied contributions to Islamic scholarship and influenced political and historical events. They had to come up with original rulings some of which, particularly in the case of Ibn Taymiyyah, differed not only with his own school of Fiqh, but also with all four. In the case of al- Izz, his contribution provided a turning point in history that Muslims today urgently need to emulate. Hence, the role of the scholar interacting with the needs of the Muslim community is highlighted by both scholars. As we look at the situation prevailing in the Muslim world today, we feel that the emergence of similar scholars cannot come too soon.

    It is hoped that this volume will be followed by a similar one concerned with the main scholars of Ḥadīth.

    1

    Abū Ḥanīfah

    ONCE UPON A TIME, a pious young man of Persian origin was sitting by the bank of the Tigris river in Iraq when he saw an apple floating on the water. Feeling rather hungry, he picked up the apple and ate it. Soon afterwards he began to question himself on having eaten something that did not belong to him, without its owner’s permission. Therefore he decided to look for the owner. Had the young man been a scholar, he would have known that he could eat the apple without having to obtain permission from anyone. However, he went upstream, looking at houses close to the river, until he saw a house with a garden and an apple tree, full of fruit and with some branches stretching over the water. It was a splendid house, with a large garden. He knocked on the door and asked to see the owner. He was ushered into the presence of an old man with a pleasant face, who seemed to be very decisive in his attitude.

    On hearing the story, the houseowner reflected a little before saying to the young man that he had committed a gross error. He should have known better than seeking forgiveness after the misdeed is done. However, he was prepared to forgive the young man if he would meet his condition. The young man was full of hope, but when he heard the condition, his heart sank. The houseowner said to him: I have a daughter of marriageable age, but she is physically and mentally handicapped, and I am worried about what would happen to her after my death. Looking at you, I feel that you could provide her with the care she needs. If you are prepared to marry her, I will forgive you what you have done.

    The young man thought hard, then decided that going through life with such a wife was much easier than having to go to hell for his misdeed. Therefore he accepted. Then on the wedding night he was surprised to find his wife a beautiful and well educated young woman, with neither physical nor mental handicap of any sort.¹

    It was into that marriage that Imām Abū Ḥanīfah, Nu mān ibn Thābit, was born in Kūfah,² southern Iraq in 80 AH, corresponding to 700 CE. He belonged to a business family trading in clothes. It is agreed by historians that his father was born a Muslim, which means that his family adopted Islam in its early days.³ Abū Ḥanīfah grew up as a very religious young man, and he memorized the Qur’ān when he was very young. It is reported that he also learnt the Qur’ān under Imām Āṣim, one of the seven most famous scholars of Qur’ānic recitation.⁴ There are many reports about how fond he was of reciting the Qur’ān, but many of these seem to be exaggerated, such as those who mention that he used to read the whole of the Qur’ān in one rak ah of voluntary night worship.⁵

    He also began to learn Ḥadīth so that he would know how to conduct his life and business in accordance with Islam. He was clear in his mind that he would carry on with his family business, which brought affluence to his family.

    His intelligence was evident at an early age. In his youth, he was involved in debates with the adherents of various beliefs and philosophies, relying mainly on his natural instinct. This gave him a good training that was to stand him in good stead in his later pursuit of Islamic studies which he started at the advice of Āmir al-Sha bī, one of the most distinguished scholars of the generation following the Prophet’s Companions who said to him: You should better pursue knowledge and attend the circles of scholars. I can see in you a man with an alert mind and penetrative understanding. Abū Ḥanīfah says: I liked what he said to me, reduced my going to the market place and began to pursue my studies. God has enabled me to benefit by his advice.

    Since debate was his main hobby, now he began to concentrate on beliefs, learning them in depth. He then travelled frequently to the other centre of learning, Baṣrah, where he was involved in numerous debates with different groups. But then he felt that such debates were largely a waste of time, and could not bring benefit to anyone. So he turned to the study of Fiqh or Islamic jurisprudence.

    Kūfah was a city where different trends of knowledge had converged. Abū Ḥanīfah aimed to achieve full understanding of four trends of Fiqh scholarship: 1) Umar’s fiqh based on what benefits people, which he learnt from Nāfi , Ibn Umar’s servant and transmitter of his learning; 2) Alī’s fiqh based on deduction and a thorough understanding of the fundamentals of Islamic law; 3) Abdullāh ibn Mas ūd’s fiqh based on analogy; and 4) Ibn Abbās’s thorough knowledge of the Qur’ān. He acquired this from Aṭā’ ibn Abī Rabāḥ in Makkah. He also learnt from the great scholars among the Prophet’s descendants, particularly Zayd ibn Alī, (d. 122 H), Muḥammad al-Bāqir (d. 114 H) and Abdullāh ibn al-Ḥasan (d. 145 H). He praised Zayd’s wide knowledge in clear terms: I have met Zayd ibn Alī, and I also met other members of his family. I have never seen any of his contemporaries who was a better scholar, or more ready with his answers, or more lucid of expression. He was without peers.⁶ He also met al-Bāqir, Zayd’s elder brother and mentor. There was some debate between the two on the principle of analogy, which al-Bāqir rejected, and Abū Ḥanīfah defended his principle admirably, and earned al-Bāqir’s approval. He also studied under Abdullāh ibn al-Ḥasan who was a renowned scholar of Ḥadīth and included among his students Mālik and Sufyān al-Thawrī.

    We see then, that Abū Ḥanīfah studied under different scholars, but he had a teacher to whose company he committed himself. That was Ḥammād ibn Abī Sulaymān, a highly distinguished scholar who had studied under al-Sha bī and Ibrāhīm al-Nakha ī, two of the most distinguished scholars of the second Islamic generation. Abū Ḥanīfah remained very close to Ḥammād for 18 years, learning from him all the Fiqh of Iraqi scholars, but he most particularly learnt the rulings issued by Ibrāhīm al-Nakha ī. Shāh Walīullāh Al-Dihlawī says that the inexhaustible source of Ḥanafī Fiqh was Ibrāhīm al-Nakha ī’s views: Abū Ḥanīfah was the one who adhered most to the school of Ibrāhīm and his associates. He would rarely go beyond it. He was very adept in applying its rules to arrive at new rulings. He had a penetrative insight in its methodology, keenly aware of its detail.

    Abū Ḥanīfah also learnt Fiqh from other scholars, particularly during his pilgrimage trips. He did the pilgrimage almost every year, absenting himself only when there was an unavoidable reason. On these trips he met numerous scholars and he learnt much through them. In Makkah, he learnt under Aṭā’ ibn AbīRabāḥ, and he also studied under Nāfi . These two were highly renowned scholars of theTābi īn generation.

    When his teacher, Ḥammād ibn Abī Sulaymān died in 120 H, Abū Ḥanīfah, his most distinguished student, took his place and continued his circle. He was soon to acquire great fame for he had added broad scholarship to superb intelligence and an exceptional ability in both analysis and debate. Moreover, he did not stop his business activity. In fact he continued his business, but went into partnership with a friend, Ḥafṣ ibn Abd al-Raḥmān, who was responsible for carrying on with all activities. Abū Ḥanīfah, however, continued to exercise close supervision to ensure full compliance with Islamic law. There are numerous reports of his exemplary honesty in his business. To quote just one, it is mentioned that he sent his partner with a consignment of clothes to sell, making clear that one garment had a defect and asking him to make this clear to the buyer. However, his partner forgot to do so when he sold the goods. He could not identify the person who bought the defective garment. In order to remove any doubt about having cheated his customers, Abū Ḥanīfah decided to give the whole amount received from the sale to charity.

    Abū Ḥanīfah followed a meticulous method of learning. On the importance of combining the study of Fiqh with the study of Ḥadīth he says: "Anyone who learns Ḥadīth without studying Fiqh is like a pharmacist who has all the medicines but does not know for which conditions they are used. He must wait until the doctor comes. A Ḥadīth student must also wait for the scholar of Fiqh."

    As a teacher, Abū Ḥanīfah followed a method similar to that of Socrates. He did not lecture. Rather, he would present a case to his students and outline the principles that apply to it. That opens the way for a discussion or a debate. Each one was free to express his thoughts on the case. They may agree with him or object to his views. The discussion may even be a heated one. When everyone has had his say and defended his view as forcefully as he could, Abū Ḥanīfah would sum up the discussion and outline the conclusion giving the final verdict. Everyone would accept his final verdict without hesitation. Thus he was able to debate with his students as if he was one of them, and retain the position of the teacher who has the ultimate say. Hence, his students loved him dearly.

    But perhaps he loved his students more than they ever loved him. He treated them as a father treats his children. He often gave them grants to cope with their needs. If a student wanted to get married and did not have the means to do so, Abū Ḥanīfah would pay the expenses of his marriage. One of his contemporaries describes this relationship as follows: He would keep his student in good means, supporting him and his dependents. When he had attained a good standard, he would say to him, ‘Now you have attained what is more valuable than wealth; for now you know what is lawful and what is forbidden.’¹⁰

    Two personal qualities had a great influence on his scholarship. The first was his independent thinking. He would not accept any verdict on any question unless he had considered it thoroughly, looking at all factors that could influence the final verdict on it. This gave him two highly important scholarly characteristics. The first is his patience and forbearance. He did not use hard words to anyone who attacked him. Once, someone accused him of being a heretic who invented matters that had no basis in Islam. Very calmly, Abū Ḥanīfah said to the man: May God forgive you, for He knows that I am unlike what you have said. Ever since I came to know Him, I have not transgressed in my beliefs. There is nothing that I hope for more than His forgiveness, and nothing that I fear more than His punishment. The man asked him earnestly to absolve him of what he said. Abū Ḥanīfah said: I forgive anyone who says something against me if he is ignorant. If he is a scholar, then the situation is more difficult. A slur by a scholar leaves its trace for long.¹¹ His teacher, Ḥammād, noticed his commitment to independent thinking, as he practically discussed with him every question. For Abū Ḥanīfah would not take any view without examining it, unless it is based on the Qur’ān, the Sunnah or a ruling by one of the Prophet’s Companions. When it came to the next generation of scholars, i.e. Tābi īn, he did not feel that he had to accept their views. Moreover, although he was very close to the descendants of the Prophet’s household, several of whom were his teachers, he maintained his high respect of all the Prophet’s Companions. Ibn Abd al-Barr quotes: Sa īd ibn Arūbah reports: I visited Kūfah where I attended Abū Ḥanīfah’s circle. One day he mentioned Uthmān ibn Affān and prayed God to have mercy on him. I said to him: ‘And you. May God have mercy on you. I have never heard anyone in this city praying for mercy for Uthmān other than you.’

    The second characteristic derived from his independent thinking was his courage. He would state his views very clearly, not swerving from any of them for any reason. However, he admitted that he could be mistaken over any question. He frequently repeated to his students: What we say is merely an expression of an opinion, which is the best we have determined. If anyone comes to us with something better, he is entitled to uphold the truth.¹² All this gave him a highly respectable status among all who knew him. He added to that a penetrative insight. He was indeed the top scholar of Iraq in his time.

    Abū Ḥanīfah looked at all questions in depth. He did not limit himself to looking at the apparent meaning of texts or statements. He wanted always to understand both their apparent and subtle meanings. His was a penetrative mind which wanted to understand everything in full. Hence, when he looked at a hadīth he would try to identify the reasons for any rulings it outlined. This enabled him to apply analogy when needed.

    Abū Ḥanīfah was a man of sharp mind. It is not known that he was ever at a loss in any debate. On the contrary, he seemed to be always ready with evidence supporting his view. Numerous are the reports that speak of his sharpness in providing an irrefutable argument in support of

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