Muhammad: Man and Prophet

Preface

PERHAPS THE WORLD was never in greater need of an accurate account of the Prophet Muhammad’s life than it is now. Interest in Islam has soared over the last couple of decades, and the trend continues after the turn of the century, but not always for the right reasons. Events, some of which were brought about by Muslims painting themselves as advocates of Islam, tended to give this last divine religion a tarnished image. Though alien to Islam’s very nature, extremism has been trying to impose its hard line attitude on Islam. It continued to play its eye-catching role, providing a fertile area for those who wish to detract from Islam and to show it in a negative light. World media, always quick to feed on sensational news, has kept Islam as a recurrent topic in its coverage of events, particularly those taking place in hot spots of the world.

The charge that is often laid at the door of Islam is ‘terrorism’. This has gathered much greater force after the tragic events of 11 September 2001, but certainly did not start with them. Several months earlier, news channels reported that an audience in the US were asked to state the first word that came to their minds when Islam is mentioned, and a substantial majority of the respondents said ‘terrorism’. We are reminded that when the Oklahoma City explosions occurred a few years ago, few media channels were prepared to show the willingness to wait for evidence before pointing an accusing finger at Islam. Needless to say, investigations soon proved that no Muslim had anything to do with that event. But the speed with which the media reacted and its unfounded accusations were indicative of an attitude of mind that certain quarters had helped to develop, fostering a false association between Islam and terrorism.

Nothing can be further from the truth. In fact, Islam considers terrorist action against civilians a very grave crime that must be punished. In Islamic law, punishment always looks at the nature of the offence and aims to deter offenders before they embark on a course of action leading to an offence. This deterrent element is seen, for example, in the fact that Islam requires that punishment of certain offences must be carried out in public. Thus justice is seen to be done, and prospective offenders are aware not only of the magnitude of the punishment they may have but also the publicity which their offences generate. Islam, then, deals with crime before it is committed, trying to reduce its incidence. At the same time, Islamic punishments serve a dual purpose of making the guilty pay for their crimes and deterring any future offenders. The Islamic attitude towards terrorism is an implementation of its approach to crime, aiming to achieve its dual purpose.

More recently we have been hearing louder voices speaking about a clash of civilizations, setting Islam in opposition to Western civilization and speaking about the inevitability of a destructive struggle between the two. Yet Islam does not seek to destroy any civilization. In its heyday, when Islam spread into many countries with divergent civilizations, traditions and sets of values, Islam interacted with them all, endorsing whatever was compatible with its aim of building a human society based on the central idea of God’s oneness. It was thus able to take the best that these civilizations had to offer, rejecting only what was of no use to human society, and what was incompatible with its central concepts. Even in Arabia, the birthplace of Islam, where idol worship was the norm, Islam accepted all good values that prevailed in that society, adopting them as its own. Thus Islam was able to incorporate into its civilization all the sound values human societies upheld, harnessing them together in a complete whole. Its approach remains the same. It is open to the best ideas and concepts people may have, rejecting only what is oppressive and false, and what stifles man’s free thought.

Nevertheless, the outcry about a clash of civilizations continues, with certain loud voices trying to pour petrol on the flames. Sweeping judgements by public figures, saying that Western civilization is superior to Islam, are often quoted in the media. Needless to say, such an outcry serves no real purpose. On the other hand, some politicians, mindful of the Muslim element in their constituencies, may try to cover up their unfavourable feelings with more diplomatic statements. Others speak in conciliatory terms and make friendly gestures, but these are often belied by their aggressive actions.

But why should there be any clash of civilizations when both Islam and Western civilization lay great emphasis on man’s freedom of thought, belief and expression? To my mind, erroneous perceptions on both sides have contributed to a polarization of attitudes that is unnecessary, harmful and potentially very dangerous. Unfortunately such erroneous perceptions have marred several aspects of Islam so extensively that these are often wrongly understood by both friend and foe. This has deepened mistrust and suspicion on both sides.

It only requires that both sides live up to their basic values of freedom for friendship and mutual cooperation to replace the underlying mistrust, fear and even hostility that have characterized relations between the two camps for centuries. Sadly, in the present circumstances, this is easier said than done. The attacks of 11 September 2001 and subsequent events will inevitably harden attitudes, rather than help to promote mutual understanding. When politicians try hard to defend the indefensible and justify what, deep at heart, they know to be unjustifiable, they can hardly hope to win over anyone who respects civilized values. Similarly, when those who profess to be advocates of Islam step far beyond the role God has defined for His messenger in advocating His message, the only results they can achieve are the opposite of the goals they set for themselves.

What is needed is a genuine reappraisal of preconceived notions so that we are able to determine what is right and stick to it. The West may pride itself on occupying the high moral ground, but it can only give credence to what it professes if it continues to adhere to its moral values in times of adversity, not shed them at the slightest temptation. And when advocates of Islam seek more than freedom to address other people and explain God’s message to them, they do a disservice to the very cause they want to serve.

The only task Islamic advocacy should set for itself is to deliver God’s message to mankind. Whether people accept or reject it is entirely their own business. No pressure should be put on them to try to bring them into Islam. Exerting such pressure is alien to the very nature of the Islamic faith. Addressing His messenger, God says in the Qur’ān: If they turn away from you, know that We have not sent you to be their keeper: your only task is to deliver the message entrusted to you. (42: 48)

This is the mission to which the Prophet Muhammad dedicated all his efforts, from the moment when he was entrusted with God’s message up to the point when his blessed life on earth was over. When studying his life, we find this clearly apparent, both at the time when his message was met with endless adversity that observed no values and when he wielded power which, had he wished, he could use to force his opponents into submission. The present work aims to present his blessed life in its true light. It covers the main events in the Prophet Muhammad’s life from childhood to old age. It is only natural that we give much greater attention to the events that followed the start of the revelation of the Qur’ān, God’s final message to mankind. In each event we recognize his role as a messenger entrusted with delivering a message, and we see the example he sets for us to follow. Following his example is part of the requirements of being a Muslim. To abandon his example in preference for some other practices is to negate the second part of the first article of Islamic faith, namely, the declaration that there is no deity other than God and that Muhammad is God’s messenger.

When reading about the Prophet’s life, one must put the military activity of the Muslim community under the Prophet’s leadership in true perspective. Was Muhammad a warrior, as a cursory look at his life may suggest? If so, how does this relate to the task outlined in the above-quoted, definitive Qur’ānic verse limiting his task to delivering God’s message?

In the present world climate, there are people who try to limit the scope of going to war in Islam, or for Islam, to an absolute minimum. I read recently in a British newspaper an article by a prolific Muslim author, saying that war during the lifetime of the Prophet totalled no more than one week in the 23 years period from the start of his message to the end of his life. Others try to justify going to war in Islamic history by saying that Islam approves of war only when it is defensive.

On the other hand, there are well-meaning advocates of Islam who place military means high on the list of Islamic requirements, considering jihād as a major Islamic duty that comes next to the five ‘pillars’ of Islam. Others are keen to show that Islam has a militaristic approach, pointing out that it calls for ‘holy war’ against unbelievers.

A proper study of the Prophet’s life shows us that none of these views is correct. The Prophet was engaged in full-scale military campaigns which, for the most part, took one day of fighting each, but the preparations and pre-battle engagement, and the states of siege mounted on certain occasions, took much longer than that. The Expedition of the Moat and the Siege of the Qurayẓah which followed immediately afterwards, took nearly two months, during which the Muslim state in Madinah was in full military mobilization, even though little actual fighting took place. Yet these events were the ones that turned the balance of power in Arabia irretrievably in the Muslim community’s favour.

It may be easy to describe the Islamic attitude to war as purely defensive, but there is nothing to be gained by that. Islam always takes a positive attitude and calls on its followers to adopt all necessary measures to ensure the safety of the Muslim community. If this means having to go to war, then so be it. We have to bear in mind, however, that Islam does not approve of waging war except in a situation where peaceful measures are of no use. This means that Islam does not approve of a military offensive, except to repel an aggression started or planned by an enemy. We see examples of this nature in the Prophet’s own actions as he took effective measures to consolidate his state in Madinah and ensure its security. Never did he start a battle or raise an army to attack any tribe or group that was willing to live in peace with Islam. Even when the Quraysh insisted on adopting a hard line just before the Battle of Badr, turning a deaf ear to the voice of wisdom emanating from some of its own elders, the Prophet was keen to avoid a military engagement. Whenever he tried to take an enemy by surprise, his strategy was to show the enemy that starting a fight was useless. Thus, bloodshed was largely avoided in such confrontations.

On the other hand, those who lay much emphasis on the role of jihād in the Muslim community, which is important indeed, often limit jihād to military fighting, showing that Islam resorts to military force to achieve its objectives. This is again an erroneous view, whether advanced by advocates or opponents of Islam. Jihād is an Islamic requirement, no doubt. But this applies in the proper and broad sense of the word jihād, which means ‘to exert one’s best effort’. Every Muslim is required to work for Islam, in his or her own place in the Muslim community, trying to serve God’s cause and further the interests of the Muslims throughout the world. All this is part of jihād, or the efforts we exert to make our belief a living reality.

The efforts we need to exert may, on occasions, take the form of a military engagement, but this is the exception, not the rule. It is to be noted that not once in the Qur’ān is the term jihād used in the sense of a military fight, although the Qur’ān comments on many battles that took place during the Prophet’s lifetime. When it refers to war, the Qur’ān invariably uses the term qitāl, which means ‘military combat’.

Those who claim that Islam calls for a holy war betray their ignorance of this great religion. Nowhere in the Qur’ān or the Prophet’s statements or in the writings of leading Islamic jurists does this term occur. In Islamic terminology, the adjective ‘holy’ applies to God only.

When we say all this, people are entitled to ask about the reason for the large number of expeditions that the Prophet sent out of Madinah, particularly in the first few years of his settlement there. A proper understanding of these may be gathered from reading this book that attempts to document the main events in the Prophet’s life. We may say here that a new state established in one city in the middle of a vast, hostile area where tribal warfare was an everyday event could only expect to be attacked. Indeed, attacks were expected from several quarters. Hence, it was necessary for the Prophet and the Muslim community to take every possible precaution, so as to be fully prepared to face any danger that could threaten its existence at any time. Such danger was indeed imminent, culminating in an alliance of all hostile forces moving forward with the declared aim of exterminating the entire Muslim community. That Islam could overcome all this danger was due to God’s help and mercy in the first place, the wise policy of the Prophet and the solid commitment of the Muslims to their cause.

It is impossible to document the Prophet’s life without giving due prominence to such military activities. Indeed, early historians who wrote about the Prophet Muhammad felt that these were the most important events, because they involved hostile forces. Hence, they called their histories, Al-Maghāzī, or The Expeditions. They might have felt that it was easy to gather the social and human dimensions of the society the Prophet had built, because these could still be seen in the Muslim community and the way it conducted its life. Later, a biography of the Prophet and a history of the period which witnessed the rise of the first Muslim community could not overlook the importance of the military aspect, because it was through such military events that the community could establish its right to exist and prosper.

For Muslims, studying the life of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is a duty that gives them an insight into how Islam is to be implemented in practice. Hence, putting the military element into proper perspective acquires, particularly in the present day, added importance. Is it possible to bring about a complete Islamic revival without waging war against existing society? Which society is to be considered hostile? Could a revivalist movement resort to a pre-emptive strike against an unfriendly society? What restrictions apply to the use of military force in the context of Islamic revival? The proper answers to these questions, and similar ones, are to be deduced from studying the Prophet’s life, as it provides the model to be followed in putting Qur’ānic teachings into practice. Such a study is bound to show that when the Prophet preached his message in Makkah and the Muslims suffered persecution, no military activity was allowed. Later, when the Muslims established their new state in the midst of hostile forces, war was allowed as the situation demanded. A few years later, when the Muslim community was able to wrest the initiative, war was avoided by all means. Even when the chance to wreak vengeance against those who for many years persecuted the Muslims and turned the Prophet out of his home town was there to grasp, every effort was made to shed no blood, and to make yesterday’s enemies today’s friends. The building of a closely-knit community based on faith, in which all maintain a bond of brotherhood, was the ultimate goal.

In our modern world, advocates of Islam want to see Islam guiding humanity again, because they believe that such guidance can only bring peace and happiness to a world that has suffered much injustice. In trying to achieve this, they must be guided by the Prophet’s example, realizing that their task, for the fulfilment of which they are accountable to God, does not go beyond delivering the message of Islam to mankind. If they try to go beyond that, they run the very real risk of making their efforts counterproductive. They should always remember that God has limited the Prophet’s role to this because He knows that it is the role that brings about the best results. It is not for them to try to extend their role beyond this point.

For the rest of mankind, a proper understanding of the nature of Islamic advocacy is most helpful in shaping their attitudes to Islam and Islamic revivalist movements. Such an understanding will tell them that all they need to do in order to live in peace with the advocates of Islam is to ensure that freedom of belief and expression is part of the real, not the ideal, world. After all, such freedom is an inalienable right of every human being. Islam gives it the highest rank among all human rights. It takes precedence over the right to life. Evidence in support of this is found in two Qur’ānic verses: Persecution is even worse than killing. (2: 191) Persecution is an even greater crime than killing. (2: 217) According to Dr M.H. Khayat, a contemporary scholar, These verses give a clear principle that persecution, which means a ‘denial of freedom’ is a far worse and greater offence than killing, which is a ‘denial of the right to life’. This principle leads to a logical conclusion that freedom is more important than life. This is by no means strange, bearing in mind that the very humanity of man is the result of such freedom.¹ With such emphasis on freedom, Islam treats its opponents with respect, provided that they respect people’s rights to free choice. From its own perspective, Western civilization could find no reason to quarrel with this attitude since it takes pride in guaranteeing such freedom to all people.

NOTE

1. M.H. Khayat, Health as a Human Right in Islam, World Health Organization, Cairo, 2004, 41pp.

Introduction to the

First Edition

I CANNOT REMEMBER how old I was when I completed the first book I read which gave a proper history of the life of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). But I was probably 12, or a little younger, when my Arabic teacher, Mr Muhammad al-Jābī, gave me a book on the Prophet’s character as a prize for being top of the class in Arabic. Although I read the book at that time, I confess I did not understand it well. Maybe its superb literary style, or its philosophical outlook, was a little too hard for me. Yet I treasured the book and kept referring to it now and then, using it to much advantage eventually.

My first job after graduation was with the Syrian Radio in Damascus. I was still receiving training when the post of Controller was given to a man with a clear vision of what a radio station being monitored in neighbouring countries should be broadcasting. In his brief spell at the post, he changed the whole outlook of Syrian Radio and gave unwavering encouragement to young talent. It took him only a few minutes to accept my proposal to write the Life of the Prophet in the form of a radio play, to be serialized in thirty 15-minute episodes. That proposal might have reflected a young man’s enthusiasm rather than a well-considered project. I praise the Almighty for the success of that first venture in writing about the Prophet. Those two experiences must have left a profound influence on me so as to herald a strong relationship with the events of that remarkable and unique period in the history of mankind when the Prophet moulded the first Muslim community and established the first Islamic state.

There was a period of time, during my early years in England, when I could not put down the Life of the Prophet by Ibn Hishām. I do not recall how many times I read that invaluable book, written over a thousand years ago, but I kept reading it again and again, feeling that each time I could learn something new. I cannot adequately describe its great appeal to me. I could see the events it related taking place in front of me. Those were the events of a period with great and everlasting influence on the area which later came to be known as the Muslim World, and indeed on the world at large. As I pictured those events, I was not a passive spectator. On the contrary, I experienced a keen sense of belonging to that community which did not only make history while it lived, but also determined the course history would follow for centuries to come.

I later diversified my sources as I tried to improve my understanding of the first generation of Muslims. My readings were instrumental in shaping my thoughts and gave me numerous ideas for my future journalistic work. There is always an example to follow, an attitude to adopt or a lesson to learn from the Prophet. Whether you are a Muslim or not, a careful study of his blessed life will enable you to have a much better understanding of Islam. Muslims find such studies immensely helpful in working out their approach to life. It should be remembered that Muslims are required to share their knowledge with others. They are duty-bound to make the faith of Islam known to non-Muslims. If they want to fulfil their duty properly, they need to have a keen insight into the life of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).

It was in April 1981 that my column ‘Islam in Perspective’ made its first appearance in Arab News, a Saudi daily paper. In those early days, with limited space at my disposal, I felt it was useful to include certain highlights from the Prophet’s history. These started as no more than brief notes which I hoped would introduce the Prophet of Islam to non-Muslim readers. The early response to that column was beyond my wildest dreams. Letters received by the Editor, and personal comments made to me and my colleagues, were highly encouraging. Within a few months, I decided to write the whole history of the Prophet. I began to serialize that history, attending to details and commenting on events. It took four years and a total of 200 episodes to complete. Needless to say, I had to modify my approach as the work progressed. In doing so, I benefited from comments which I regularly received from my readers. This meant, however, that there was a marked difference between early chapters and later ones. There was a need to rewrite the early part and to add a few chapters which could not have been included in the serialized form. I thought it would not be long before I could complete those chapters and have the book published. But it is a common human failing that sights are set higher than abilities. What with a total change of my circumstances, and the heavy demands on my time from different sources, a delay was inevitable. However, I praise the Almighty for enabling me to complete this work and put it in the hands of my readers.

Writing the history of the Prophet is different from anything else a writer can attempt. It is a special experience which can be shared by those who are fortunate enough to undertake this task. No other piece of work which I have attempted at any time in my life has given me similar pleasure and satisfaction. There is something in this blessed history which one can clearly perceive, although one cannot properly identify it. It imparts a blessing to one’s life which enables one to enjoy most, if not all, of one’s activities. The result is that your desire to have your work completed and published is accompanied by an opposite desire that the work continues indefinitely so that you continue to enjoy its blessing.

The slow progress of this work in its original serialized form has helped me understand certain aspects of the Islamic faith which are often overlooked. These are bound to have a profound influence on the thinking of the Islamic revivalist movement if they are properly studied. I have attempted to share these with my readers, in as much as the line I have followed in relating this history allows. What I can say in this introductory note is that many Muslim countries would have been spared much of the internal political conflict in which advocates of Islam were involved, had the sīrah (i.e. the Prophet’s personal and public history) been better studied and understood by Muslims generally. To say that Islam dislikes all types of war and approves of it only as a last resort, when the very existence of Islam or its basic principles are threatened, is no more than a statement of basic facts. Islam has an even greater dislike of armed conflict, and indeed of all types of strife within its home base or in populated areas. This can be clearly seen in several main events, such as the emigration to Abyssinia and the peace agreement at al-Ḥudaybiyah. Both are related in detail in this book.

Relations between Europe and Islam have always been the opposite of what we generally associate with good neighbourliness. Even today, with the principles of democracy firmly enshrined in Europe, as well as a broad-minded understanding of human rights, there remains a sense of mistrust underlining these relations. While long drawn-out conflicts such as the Crusades and the hostility between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, as well as the European imperialism in wide areas of the Muslim World, are bound to leave lingering prejudices, increased contacts between the East and the West, brought about by the jet age, should have been enough to remove those traces and build a solid friendly relationship. Instead we find that the mistrust not only persists, but also widens in scope so as to include the whole of Europe and North America on one side and the whole Muslim World on the other. As I worked on this book, I became increasingly aware that perhaps the main reason for this mistrust has been a lingering misunderstanding of Islam by the West. Over the years, this misunderstanding has been sustained by Orientalists whose approach in their study of Islam was far from objective. Unfortunately, it is easy to quote out of context, or to utilize a particular aspect of a historical event, in order to misrepresent a great religion and a human philosophy. This has been characteristic of numerous writings on Islam by Western authors. When such writings happen to touch on the Prophet personally, Muslims find them greatly offensive and totally indefensible.

My long stay in England, stretching over 22 years, has given me a feeling that the West’s misunderstanding of Islam is due to ignorance rather than prejudice. I have met many people who had the chance to know the people of the Middle East at close range, and consequently to know about Islam. Invariably, these people are ready to express their profound respect for the Islamic faith. It is unfortunate that nowadays, we in the Middle East, and in the Muslim World generally, have a very good chance of getting to know the West and its culture, but seem to be content with this one-way traffic. There is little serious attempt to redress the balance so that we can be better understood in the West. Moreover, the fact that the Western culture enjoys a position of great strength gives it an understandable feeling of self-sufficiency and an air of superiority. Hence the seemingly arrogant attitude that the West could gain little by understanding the East, while the East will benefit immensely by understanding the West. However, most educated people in the West would not approve of such an attitude, because it is contrary to many of their professed principles. Hence, a serious and sustained effort to clarify all aspects of misunderstanding of Islam by the West is needed. When the serialization of this book was still in progress in Arab News, I became increasingly aware that many misunderstandings of Islam by the West could be cleared up if the West could get to know the personality and the life of the Prophet Muhammad better. That strengthened my feeling that an in-depth study of the Prophet’s personality, lifestyle, message, work, actions and the state he established, should be made available to Western readers. This book is a humble attempt to make such a task easier. It makes no pretence of being ‘objective’, or trying to evaluate events in a detached manner. I do not think that such an ‘objective’ study serves that purpose. This book is written by a committed author who does not see that there is anything to be gained by such detachment. On the contrary, I believe that there is much that the West could learn about Islam if it is able to look at it through the eyes of a Muslim. If Western readers feel after reading this book that they have a better understanding of Islam and have acquired an insight into how Muslims formulate their ideas and arrive at their conclusions, then my purpose is achieved. If not, the fault is entirely mine.

Keeping this objective in mind, I have made no attempt to reply to specific claims or views advanced by Orientalist scholars. I am sure that much needs to be done in this area, but I feel that it is more important to present the Islamic point of view, without being entangled in side issues or disputes. However, I have fully discussed events which have aroused recurring historical controversy. Many of these were the cause of dispute at the time of the Prophet. Others were manipulated by people hostile to Islam, belonging to all shades of the religious and the political spectrum. In all these, I state the standard Islamic view in detail, trying to elucidate it as much as possible.

This book also aims at another, totally different type of reader. For several decades, Muslims have been coming to Europe seeking work and a better standard of living. Thus, new Muslim communities have established themselves in several European countries. As time passes and new generations of Muslims grow up, these Muslim communities find their contacts growing steadily weaker with the places from where their parents came. These Muslim communities are fast becoming ethnic European minority communities. As they try to preserve their Islamic identity, they feel the need to read about Islam in their native, European languages. I sincerely hope that this book goes part of the way in meeting a definite need to have a reference work in English on the life of the Prophet elucidating the Islamic point of view.

There was a persistent thought in my mind as I wrote and reviewed successive drafts of this book. As readers will realize, there were events in which the Prophet took certain measures and adopted certain attitudes which are at variance with the standards of what we call ‘modern civilization’. Some of these were indeed criticized by the enemies of Islam at that time. We find that in many of these events, the Qur’ān defends or supports the Prophet’s action with absolute clarity. As is well known, the Qur’ān is God’s word, revealed part after part to the Prophet as and when God deemed fit. Its revelation took the whole of the 23 years from the time when Muhammad (peace be upon him) was told that God had chosen him as His Messenger to mankind to the time when he completed his mission and passed away to be in the companionship of his Lord. A clear statement of support to the Prophet in the Qur’ān means that God Himself gives him His backing. It is not difficult for anyone who wishes to criticize Islam, or the Prophet who conveyed its message to mankind, to pinpoint such events and then refer to the Qur’ānic support the Prophet received over them and insinuate that such support was particularly convenient to the Prophet, implying that he finds the idea of Divine revelation unconvincing. Such a view may be understandable if it can be shown that Qur’ānic revelations consistently supported the Prophet in all events and over all issues. The fact is that such support was given only when it was merited. There were other events and other measures adopted by the Prophet which earned criticism, disapproval or even censure in the Qur’ān. Some of these are not related in this history because they are rather personal in nature. Others, like the strong criticism of the Prophet’s policy over the captives at the Battle of Badr are explained in detail.

Moreover, we find that at times, Qur’ānic revelations demanded that the Prophet should do certain things which he found extremely difficult. His marriage to Zaynab bint Jaḥsh provides the clearest example. At times, we find the Prophet adopting attitudes in his personal and family life that are dictated by his faith. His own personal preferences do not appear to be a factor influencing his decisions. A clear example of these events is that which relates to his eldest daughter, Zaynab, and how she was allowed to stay with her non-Muslim husband after the Prophet and most Muslims had emigrated to Madinah. The events of her recall and subsequent protection of her husband should also be considered in this context. At other times, we find the Prophet doing what is dictated by his faith, regardless of its likely effects on him personally. A clear example is seen in the way the Prophet went about publicizing the events of his night journey from Makkah to Jerusalem and subsequent ascension to heaven and then back to Makkah in the same night. Although he was aware of the abuse which was likely to be showered on him for such publicity, he went ahead with making his announcement, simply because he was required to do so.

It is universally accepted that justice requires that no verdict may be made in any case on the basis of partial information. It is necessary to consider every relevant issue before passing judgement. Hence we cannot accept criticism of the Qur’ānic support of actions taken by the Prophet without looking at the other aspects of the Qur’ānic comments on his other actions. We should also consider the Prophet’s attitude in fulfilling the tasks assigned to him, even though it was inevitable that he would be criticized for them.

Finally, I hope that this humble attempt to give an account of the life of the most noble soul that ever walked on the face of this planet shows a glimpse of his character. We should remember here that God has made it clear that in the Prophet we have an example to follow if we truly aim to please God and win the ultimate prize of admission into heaven in the life to come. When we study his character and his life, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) appears to us as a noble, dedicated, human leader who takes good care of his followers. But he is, above all, a model believer to whom we should always turn in order to determine what course to follow and what action to take. We should always remember his last reminder to us: I have left with you what should provide you with sound guidance and immunity from error if you would only adhere to them: God’s Book and my example.

1

A Glance Back in History

WHEN EARLY PROPHETS are mentioned, one often thinks of Abraham – not because he was the first Prophet, for according to Islamic tradition he was not, but because God honoured him by placing prophethood in his seed. Yet when Abraham was advanced in years he was still childless and his wife Sarah, whom he loved and cherished, was beyond the age of childbearing. With unshakeable faith that God was always able to do what He willed, Abraham still hoped that one day he would have a child who would give him pleasure and happiness in his old age.

Sarah had a maid called Hagar whom she had brought from Egypt. She gave that bondswoman to Abraham and said: I am now an old woman, well beyond the age of childbearing. I am giving you my bondswoman, Hagar, and hope that God may give you a child through her. Before long Hagar was pregnant. She gave birth to a son, who was named Ishmael.

Abraham’s joy was great, and so was Hagar’s. She felt now that her position in the house was no longer that of a bondswoman. She was the mother of the only child of the family. As Sarah watched Hagar looking after her newborn son, her feeling of jealousy grew stronger every day, especially when she noticed that Abraham was now looking after Hagar and Ishmael, showing them great love and tenderness.

Yet Abraham was very eager to keep Sarah happy. After all, she was his wife with whom he had shared his life for many years. He felt that the only way to keep both women happy was to separate them. While pondering how to do that, he received Divine orders which settled matters for him. A perfect model of a believer who was always ready to carry out God’s orders, Abraham travelled with Hagar and Ishmael, along unfamiliar routes and deep inside the Arabian peninsula, until he arrived in the area where Makkah now stands. At that time the place was barren, with no vegetation or water. Nobody lived there. But Abraham was commanded by God to leave his son Ishmael with Hagar in that place. Since Abraham never disobeyed a command from God, he left his son there with his mother, giving them a sack of dates and whatever little water he had with him. He started on his way back to Palestine where he had left Sarah.

Hagar asked him how he could leave them in that barren valley. Abraham did not answer. He could not even look back, for he was so sorry to leave them there. It is easy to imagine that his eyes were full of tears as he moved away and left them alone. Desperate to be reassured, Hagar shouted to him: was he abandoning them there on God’s orders? When he answered in the affirmative, she said: He who has ordered you to do that will not abandon us.

Travelling back on his long, lonely journey, Abraham must have experienced all the feelings of an old father abandoning his only child, very young, alone with his young mother in the desert. As a firm believer in God’s wisdom, however, he felt that he could nevertheless entrust them to the care of God. He raised his hands and repeated this heartfelt prayer: Our Lord, I have settled some of my offspring in a valley where there is no vegetation, close to Your sanctified House, so that, Our Lord, they might devote themselves to prayer. Cause You, therefore, people’s hearts to incline towards them and provide them with all sorts of fruit, so that they may have cause to be grateful. (14: 37) With the feeling that God would not abandon those two helpless souls who were so dear to Him, Abraham continued his journey with a new sense of relief.

A Lonely Mother with Her Child

Back in the barren valley, Hagar devoted herself to her young child, reassured that God must have a purpose for their arrival in that lifeless desert. She felt no need to despair. For a few days she and her son survived on the dates and water Abraham had left. She praised God for His bounty and prayed Him to be merciful to her and to her son. Soon, however, her supply of dates and water was exhausted. She had nothing to feed herself or her young boy. The two were soon very hungry and thirsty. With the cries of the little boy sharp in her ears, Hagar felt desperate, helpless. She was running here and there, hoping that she would find something to quieten Ishmael. She climbed the nearest hill to try to observe the area around her. That hill was al-Ṣafā. But she could see no one. She came down and climbed the next hill, al-Marwah. Again, there was no sign of life around. She went back to the first hill and kept going to and fro between the two hills. Each time she thought she heard voices from the other direction. When she had run between the two hills seven times, and was on the top of al-Marwah, she heard a voice very close to her, but she could not see anyone. She said: Whoever you are, help us if you can. Turning towards her child in the bottom of the valley, she saw him rubbing the earth with his leg. She then heard the angel asking her who she was. She answered: I am Hagar, the mother of Abraham’s son. He asked her: To whom has he entrusted you in this barren place? She replied: He entrusted us to the care of God. The angel rejoined: He has then trusted you to the All-Merciful, the Compassionate.

At this point, while the boy was still rubbing his leg against the earth, water gushed forth between his feet. Hagar shouted: God is Supreme. She rushed back to her son and began to form a barrier around the new-found spring so that the water would not run into the valley. She filled her water container and the water continued to gush forth. After giving her child enough to drink, she drank herself and prostrated herself in a gesture of thankfulness to God for His grace. She felt that she had been brought into that area in order that a definite purpose of God be accomplished.

The water continued to gush forth and attracted birds. It so happened that an Arabian tribe called the Jurhum was travelling north across the desert when they saw a bird flying nearby. They realized that there must be a spring in the area for birds would only fly across an area where they saw water. Keen to replenish their stock of water, they tried to determine the exact position of the spring. Their emissaries soon came back with the happy news and they moved over to wash and drink. When they saw Hagar, they realized that the spring was hers. She, however, was more than pleased to see them and said that they were welcome to encamp.

The Jurhum liked the place, and Hagar was very happy to have them. They felt that they could settle there without the need to travel any further north. This was the beginning of settled life in the valley of Makkah. Ishmael grew up among the Jurhum tribe, learning their language, Arabic, and mixing with their children. When he was a young man, he married a Jurhum girl who gave him a number of sons and daughters. Ishmael was in effect one of the Jurhum. He and his children lived in that valley, and many generations later Muhammad, God’s Messenger and a direct descendant of Ishmael, was born in that very place.

Abraham did not just abandon his young child with his lonely mother and forget about them. Prophets do not abandon their families in that manner. Despite the long distance between Palestine and the place where Ishmael had been left, Abraham visited Hagar and Ishmael every now and then. He recognized God’s grace, which was manifest in the fact that the Jurhum came to settle in that valley, so that Ishmael could grow up among them.

The Great Sacrifice

On one of his visits, Abraham saw in a dream that he was commanded to sacrifice his son, Ishmael, for God’s sake. At that time Ishmael was in his teens, able to understand the fact that Prophets like his father did not see any ‘false’ dreams. It is the first mark of prophethood that the dreams a Prophet sees are as true as anything he sees in real life. The dream was repeated on three consecutive nights and Abraham realized that he had no choice but to carry out the Divine order. He put the matter as gently as he could to his son, who was still in the prime of youth, and asked him: What do you say, son?

Since Ishmael was brought up by a mother whose firm belief in God did not forsake her even at the moment when she was abandoned alone with her young boy in the middle of the desert, and by a father who was a Prophet, faith had been instilled in him ever since he was very young. He therefore faced the problem squarely and announced his readiness to submit himself to God’s will: Father, do as you are bid. You will find me, God willing, patient and able to face death with fortitude. (37: 102)

Both father and son went some distance out of the city, to the place known today as Minā, where they prepared to obey God’s command. Satan tried to dissuade Abraham from sacrificing his son. He tried to arouse fatherly love in him. Abraham’s submission to God’s will, however, showed no sign of weakness whatsoever. He stoned Satan in three different spots. His action is commemorated by pilgrims when they stone the Jamrahs as one of the duties of their pilgrimage. At the point when Abraham was about to cut his son’s throat in complete submission to the Divine will, an angel came to him and bade him stop. He was told that God had accepted his offering and was pleased with his obedience. He had spared Ishmael for the sake of his elderly father. The angel gave Abraham a fully grown sheep to sacrifice instead.

Building the Kaʿbah

On another visit, perhaps when Ishmael was already married and had some children, Abraham told him that God had ordered him to erect a House in that place, to serve as a consecrated temple. Ishmael expressed his readiness to help his father build the desired structure. Both father and son worked hard to lay the foundations and erect the building. Ishmael carried the stones and put each one in its place while Abraham made sure that the building was firm and well established. When the building was higher than Abraham’s reach, Ishmael brought a large stone for his father to stand on and continue the work. As father and son laboured to complete the building, they prayed God to accept their work and bless their seed. The Qur’ān quotes their prayers:

When Abraham and Ishmael were raising the foundations of the House, they prayed: Our Lord, accept You this from us, for You are indeed the One Who hears all and knows all. Our Lord, make us submit ourselves to You, and make out of our offspring a community which will submit itself to You, and show us our ways of worship, and accept our repentance. You are indeed the One Who accepts repentance, the Merciful. Our Lord, raise up in the midst of our offspring a messenger from among themselves, who shall convey to them Your revelations, and instruct them in the Book and in the wisdom, and cause them to grow in purity. You alone are the Almighty, the truly Wise. (2: 127-129)

God accepted the work done by Abraham and Ishmael, and answered their prayers. He made the building they erected a centre of worship to which people from all over the world came on pilgrimage. God instructed Abraham to announce to mankind that God required them to make the pilgrimage to that House. Abraham asked: How far can my voice reach, my Lord? God told him that it was his task to make the announcement and God Himself would ensure that it was heard all over the world. Abraham complied, and God caused his announcement to be heard far and wide. People started coming to the House, which was called the Kaʿbah, from the time of that announcement. Abraham taught them the rituals of pilgrimage, as he was taught them by God through an angel. God told Abraham that it was His will that Makkah should be a consecrated city where fighting was forbidden. Its animals were to move about safely without fear of being hunted. It was forbidden to cut down its trees. People were secure and safe there. Such has been the status of Makkah ever since Abraham built that House which was the first ever to be erected as a centre of worship for mankind.

Abraham was instructed by God to build the Kaʿbah so that it could serve as a focal point for those who worshipped God alone and ascribed no partners or equals to Him. It was also meant to be a refuge, where everyone felt secure. The Kaʿbah was always a structure of dark stones which had no special significance of their own. The ceiling was raised over pillars made of the best wood. The sanctity the Kaʿbah has come to acquire is the result of the memories with which it has been associated. More importantly, its sanctity is due to the concept for whose propagation it is a symbol: the oneness of God, the only deity worthy of worship. Anyone who assumes that the Kaʿbah itself, or any part of it, can have any beneficial or harmful effect of its own accord is guilty of idolatry, which Islam will always fight with all its might to eradicate.

The Kaʿbah continued to be revered and sanctified by the Arabs, even at the height of their polytheism. Indeed, the Arabs who lived far from Makkah used to make the trip to visit the holy place. The Quraysh derived much of their prestige as the master tribe in Arabia from the fact that they were the custodians of the Kaʿbah.

God also answered Abraham’s and Ishmael’s prayer to send among their offspring a messenger to instruct them in the pure faith based on total submission to God. That messenger was Muhammad, the last of all Prophets.¹

The building of the Kaʿbah and the regular pilgrimage to it gave Makkah a special importance in Arabia. In time, other tribes came to settle there. The authority in Makkah, however, belonged to the tribe which looked after the Kaʿbah and held its custody. They held the keys to it and led the pilgrimage, showing the pilgrims how to perform their rituals. That was a position of great honour and the Arabian tribes competed among themselves to win over the custody of the Kaʿbah. When any tribe had the upper hand in Makkah, its nobility enjoyed that honour for as long as they could keep it in the face of constant opposition from other tribes.

Naturally, the custody of the Kaʿbah belonged at first to Ishmael and his offspring. It continued in their hands until it was later taken over by the Jurhum tribe. The takeover was completed without violence, since the Jurhum were considered the ‘maternal uncles’ of the Ishmaelites, because Ishmael was married to a Jurhum woman. The Jurhum continued to be custodians of the Kaʿbah for a long while. As time passed, however, they allowed changes to creep into the rituals of pilgrimage and their rule became tyrannical. Always, in the history of Makkah, whenever the custodians of the Consecrated Mosque, that is, the Kaʿbah, allowed corruption to spread, God would cause them to lose the honour of the custody of the Kaʿbah to some other tribe. Thus the Jurhum ceded to the Khuzāʿah the supreme honour of holding the custody of the Kaʿbah. The Jurhum, however, did not surrender willingly. When they realized that they were unable to defend their position, they collected all the treasures which were dedicated to the Kaʿbah and buried them in the well of Zamzam, the spring which had gushed forth between Ishmael’s feet when he was a very young boy. They levelled the well and removed all traces of its position. When they had made sure that no one would be able to discover the position of the well, they left Makkah for some other place.²

For a long time the Khuzāʿah continued to be the custodians of the Kaʿbah. They were the rulers in Makkah until the Quraysh took over. The Quraysh enjoyed the noblest lineage in Arabia because they were the direct descendants of Ishmael and Abraham (peace be upon them both). The man who gained that honour for the Quraysh was Quṣayy ibn Kilāb,³ the fifth grandfather of our Prophet Muhammad ibn ʿAbdullāh.

It is important to mention here that these political changes were matched by far-reaching changes in the beliefs of the people of Arabia. Over the years, the concept of God’s oneness weakened its hold on people’s minds. The introduction of a physical symbol of the Divine power was the beginning of idolatry. As symbols increased in number, they came to be viewed as deities and partners with God. By the time Quṣayy was master in Makkah, pagan beliefs had spread throughout Arabia.

Quṣayy Assumes Leadership in Makkah

The story of Quṣayy’s ascendancy is worth telling. His father died when he was very young. His mother married a man from the tribe of Quḍāʿah, called Rabīʿah ibn Ḥarām. Rabīʿah took his wife and her young son to live with his tribe in the north of Arabia, close to the border with Palestine. Quṣayy lived there thinking that he was Rabīʿah’s own child. When he was a young man he learned that he belonged to the Quraysh and that his brother Zuhrah was the chief of the Quraysh. He therefore travelled to Makkah, where he joined his brother.

It was not long before the whole of Makkah recognized that Quṣayy was a young man of great promise. He combined a serious character with great sagacity and a noble heart. He made many friends. When he wanted to marry, his choice was none other than Ḥubbā, daughter of Ḥulayl ibn Ḥubshiyyah, chief of the Khuzāʿah and Master of Makkah who held the position of the custodian of the Kaʿbah. Ḥulayl recognized the qualities of leadership in Quṣayy and was very fond of him. He treated him like his own son. On his deathbed, Ḥulayl made it known that Quṣayy was his choice to succeed him as custodian of the Kaʿbah and ruler of Makkah. The transfer, however, was not completed without resistance from the Khuzāʿah. Quṣayy sought help from his brothers in the tribe of Quḍāʿah and they came over with speed and a large army to support him. He soon subdued the Khuzāʿah and was Master of Makkah.

Fighting broke out between the two sides, leading to much bloodshed. Arbitration was then agreed and the arbiter, Yaʿmur ibn ʿAwf, ruled in Quṣayy’s favour. When Quṣayy was the undisputed leader of Makkah, he called in all the clans of the Quraysh, which were scattered all over the place, to come and resettle there. He assigned to each clan their district so that they were in complete control of the whole city. All the Quraysh were extremely happy with Quṣayy’s leadership. They called him the Assembler because he had caused the Quraysh to regroup. They felt that he was a man of good omen. They honoured him to the extent that no man or woman from the Quraysh would be married, no consultation in any public matter and no declaration of war could be made unless it was done in his home. His request was an order and his word was a religion to them. He built a big hall close to the mosque to serve as a meeting-place for the Quraysh and called it Dār al-Nadwah. They assembled there for any occasion of joy or distress, held their consultations and arranged their parties and social events. Dār al-Nadwah was associated with Quṣayy and continued to serve its purpose after his death.

One of Quṣayy’s noble acts was the initiation of a practice which came to be known as Rifādah. He noted that pilgrims were always coming to Makkah from distant places. By the time they arrived they were weary, their camels or horses in a state of utter exhaustion. They were ill-fed and ill-clothed, especially those who were of limited means. He recognized that Makkah must be much more hospitable to them. He therefore called in the Quraysh notables and said to them:

People of Quraysh, you are God’s neighbours and the custodians of His House who live in this consecrated city. God has chosen you for this honour. In the pilgrimage season you welcome those pilgrims who have come to visit God’s House, revering its sanctity and performing its rituals. They are God’s guests in His House. The guests most worthy of hospitality are God’s guests. You must be hospitable to them. Let us, then, provide them with food and drink in the days of pilgrimage until they have left our city to return to their homes and families.

The Quraysh responded well to Quṣayy’s appeal and approved his suggestion. Every family subscribed a specific quantity of food and drink according to their means. They put it all at Quṣayy’s disposal and he supervised the arrangements by which all pilgrims were given enough to eat and drink. Quṣayy himself took part in the work and offered the pilgrims whatever the Quraysh prepared for them – bread, meat and various dishes. This increased the Quraysh’s prestige and enhanced Quṣayy’s honour. He in effect combined all the symbols of honour and leadership. No one could enter the Kaʿbah unless Quṣayy himself opened the door for him. During the pilgrimage season no one ate or drank anything except what Quṣayy provided. His honour was the Quraysh’s honour; they loved and revered their leader.

When Quṣayy died, the institutions he had established continued to prosper. The leader of the Quraysh was the most respected chief in Arabia. The Quraysh itself commanded a position of great respect.⁴

Quṣayy was succeeded by a number of able chiefs from his own offspring. They continued his traditions of looking after the tribe and taking care of pilgrims. That latter concern and the custody of the Kaʿbah were matters of great honour for the Quraysh. Hāshim, Quṣayy’s grandson, put hospitality to pilgrims on an unprecedented level. He was very wealthy and his hospitality was commensurate with his wealth. He told the Quraysh that he would not have asked them to contribute anything to the feeding of pilgrims had his own resources been sufficient for the purpose. That was great encouragement for his people to make generous contributions. Hāshim got his wealth through trade. When