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    Food Bioconversion
    Food Bioconversion
    Food Bioconversion
    Ebook1,151 pages12 hours

    Food Bioconversion

    By Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu and Alina Maria Holban

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    About this ebook

    Food Bioconversion, Volume Two in the Handbook of Food Bioengineering series is an interdisciplinary resource of fundamental information on waste recovery and biomaterials under certain environmental conditions. The book provides information on how living organisms can be used to transform waste into compounds that can be used in food, and how specialized living cells in plants, animals and water can convert the most polluting agents into useful non-toxic products in a sustainable way. This great reference on the bioconversion of industrial waste is ideal in a time when food resources are limited and entire communities starve.

    • Presents extraction techniques of biological properties to enhance food’s functionality, i.e. functional foods or nutraceuticals
    • Provides detailed information on waste material recovery issues
    • Compares different techniques to help advance research and develop new applications
    • Includes research solutions of different biological treatments to produce foods with antibiotic properties, i.e. probiotics
    • Explores how bioconversion technologies are essential for research outcomes to increase high quality food production
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAcademic Press
    Release dateJun 29, 2017
    ISBN9780128112069
    Food Bioconversion

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      Book preview

      Food Bioconversion - Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Food Bioconversion

      Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 2

      Edited by

      Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Alina Maria Holban

      Table of Contents

      Cover

      Title page

      Copyright

      List of Contributors

      Foreword

      Series Preface

      Preface for Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

      Chapter 1: Food Waste Utilization: Green Technologies for Manufacture of Valuable Products From Food Wastes and Agricultural Wastes

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Kinetics of Bioconversion

      3. Design of Industrial Bioreactors

      4. Conclusions

      Glossary

      Chapter 2: The Importance of Microbial and Enzymatic Bioconversions of Isoflavones in Bioactive Compounds

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Biotransformation of Isoflavones by Human Gut Microbiota

      3. Microbial Bioconversion of Isoflavones

      4. Enzymatic Bioconversion of Isoflavones

      5. Clinical Implications

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 3: The Recovery of Energy and Materials From Food Waste by Codigestion with Sludge: Internal Environment of Digester and Methanogenic Pathway

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Principles, Parameters, and Technologies of Codigestion

      3. Materials and Methods (for AD and Genetic Analysis)

      4. Energy and Material Recovery

      5. Internal Environment of Digester and Methanogenic Pathway

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 4: Biotechnological Production of Conjugated Fatty Acids With Biological Properties

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Biological Properties of CLA and CLNA

      3. Conjugated Fatty Acids Producing Microorganisms

      4. Enriched Fermented Foods with Conjugated Fatty Acids

      5. Conjugated Fatty Acids Production by Biocatalysis

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 5: Bioproduct Extraction From Microbial Cells by Conventional and Nonconventional Techniques

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction

      3. Microwave-Assisted Extraction

      4. Sub- and Supercritical Fluid Extraction

      5. Pulsed Electric Fields

      6. Aqueous Two-Phase System

      Chapter 6: Anticancer Action of Sulfated Flavonoids as Phase II Metabolites

      Abstract

      1. Flavonoids and Their Potential Contribution in the Fight Against Cancers

      2. Biotranformation of Flavonoids in Human Organism

      3. Anticancer Action of Sulfated Flavonoid Conjugates

      4. Conclusions and Further Perspectives

      Chapter 7: Prebiotic–Probiotic Relationship: The Genetic Fundamentals of Polysaccharides Conversion by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus Genera

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Probiotics

      3. Prebiotics: An Overview

      4. Probiotic-Prebiotic Interactions

      5. Methods for Industrial Production of Prebiotics

      6. Synbiotics Development

      7. Conclusions

      Chapter 8: Plant By-Products and Food Industry Waste: A Source of Nutraceuticals and Biopolymers

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. By-products and Wastes

      3. Nutraceutical

      4. Biopolymer-Based Products

      5. Biorefinery

      6. Conclusions

      Abbreviations

      Chapter 9: Biotic and Abiotic Factors to Increase Bioactive Compounds in Fruits and Vegetables

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Biotic Stress

      3. Abiotic Stress

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 10: Biomass Conversion of Plant Residues

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Biomass Conversion Efficiency

      3. Composition of Crude Oil and Biogas

      4. Utilization of Biomass Conversion Products

      5. Summary

      Chapter 11: Incorporation and Bioconversion of Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Obtention of Enriched Fish

      Abstract

      1. Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Why Should They be Consumed?

      2. Fortification

      3. Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids in Fish

      4. Bioavailability and Conclusions

      Chapter 12: Xylitol as Bioproduct From the Agro and Forest Biorefinery

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Agro and Forest Lignocellulosic Materials as Xylose Feedstocks

      3. Xylitol Production

      4. Xylitol Recovery

      5. Biotechnological Considerations

      6. Technical and Economical Assessment of Xylitol Production in Biorefineries

      7. Xylitol Applications and Market Trends

      8. Conclusions

      Chapter 13: Importance of Phosphoric Acid for Functional Foods: Prebiotics Oligosaccharides

      Abstract

      1. Phosphorus and its Importance in Nature

      2. Functional Foods and Nutriceuticals

      3. Prebiotic Oligosaccharides

      4. Acid Hydrolysis

      5. Phosphoric Acid Hydrolysis of Polysaccharides

      6. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 14: Recovery of Phenolic Compounds From Olive Oil Mill Wastewaters by Physicochemical Methodologies

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. The Other Face of the Coin: Sustainable and Viable Recovery of High Added–Value Antioxidant Compounds From OMWW

      3. Physicochemical Extraction Systems for the Recovery of Phenolic Compounds From OOMWW

      4. Physical Extraction Systems for the Recovery of Phenolic Compounds From OOMWW

      5. Conclusions

      Chapter 15: Boosting Our Soil With Green Technology: Conversion of Organic Waste Into Black Gold

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Brief History of Vermicomposting

      3. Management of Worms

      4. Vermicomposting and Vermicompost Modern Strategy

      5. Benefits of Vermicompost

      6. Use of Vermicompost in Fisheries

      7. Marketing Channel

      8. Conclusions

      Index

      Copyright

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      This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

      Notices

      Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

      Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

      To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

      British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

      A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

      ISBN: 978-0-12-811413-1

      For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

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      List of Contributors

      José C. Andrade,     CESPU - Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, Gandra, Portugal

      María C. Area,     Institute of Materials of Missions, IMAM (UNaM-CONICET), Posadas, Misiones, Argentina

      Georgina D. Arthur,     Mangosuthu University of Technology, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

      Raúl Avila-Sosa,     Autonomous University of Benemérita in Puebla, Puebla, Mexico

      Carlos A.V. Burkert,     Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

      Fabiana Carbonera,     State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil

      Bárbara M.S. Chalcoski,     Federal Technological University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

      Shrijita Das,     National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, West Bengal, India

      Amanda R.A. de Ávila,     State University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

      Lívia D. de Queirós,     State University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

      Armando C. Duarte,     CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

      José D. Fontana,     Federal Technological University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

      Ana C. Freitas,     CBQF – Centre for Biotechnology and Fine Chemistry, Catholic University of Portugal, Porto, Portugal

      Ana María Gómez-Caravaca,     University of Granada, Granada, Spain

      Francesco Di Maria,     University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

      Ana M. Gomes,     CBQF – Centre for Biotechnoloy and Fine Chemistry, Catholic University of Portugal, Porto, Portugal

      Adelia Grzybowski,     Federal Technological University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

      Susana J. Kalil,     Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

      Hyunook Kim,     University of Seoul, Seoul, South Korea

      Minsoo Kim,     University of Seoul, Seoul, South Korea

      Sang-Hyoun Kim,     Daegu University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk, South Korea

      Heidegrid S. Koop,     Federal Technological University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

      Aurelio López-Malo,     University Americas of Puebla, Puebla, Mexico

      Danielle B. Lopes,     State University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

      Gabriela A. Macedo,     State University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

      Nubla Mahmood,     Western University, London, ON, Canada

      Antonio Martínez-Férez,     University of Granada, Granada, Spain

      Swami Arêa Maruyama,     State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil

      Felipe R. Meger,     Federal Technological University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

      Naice E.S. Monteiro,     State University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

      Caroline C. Moraes,     Federal University of Pampa, Bagé, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

      Kuben Naidoo,     Mangosuthu University of Technology, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

      C.M. Narayanan,     National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, West Bengal, India

      Addí R. Navarro-Cruz,     Autonomous University of Benemérita in Puebla, Puebla, Mexico

      Javier Miguel Ochando-Pulido,     University of Granada, Granada, Spain

      Carlos E. Ochoa-Velasco,     Autonomous University of Benemérita in Puebla, Puebla, Mexico

      Valerie Orsat,     McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

      Enrique Palou,     University Americas of Puebla, Puebla, Mexico

      Aditi Pandey,     National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, West Bengal, India

      Kaloyan Petrov,     Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria

      Penka Petrova,     Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria

      Teresa A.P. Rocha-Santos,     CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

      Winny Routray,     Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, NL, Canada

      Katrin Sak,     Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia

      Luisa Sala,     Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

      Oscar O. Santos, Jr.,     State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil

      Lucas B. Scremin,     Federal Technological University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

      Antonio Segura-Carretero,     University of Granada, Granada, Spain

      Joung Du Shin,     National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, RDA, Wanju, South Korea

      Ricardo Spirandelli,     Federal Technological University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

      Harry Swatson,     Cedara College of Agriculture, Cedara, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

      Marcela Tiboni,     Federal Technological University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

      Julianna M. Vagula,     State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil

      María E. Vallejos,     Institute of Materials of Missions, IMAM (UNaM-CONICET), Posadas, Misiones, Argentina

      Jesuí V. Visentainer,     State University of Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil

      Chunbao (Charles) Xu,     Western University, London, ON, Canada

      Kwasi S. Yobo,     University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

      Foreword

      In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

      The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

      Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

      Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng)

      Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Series Preface

      The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

      Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the amazing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

      While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

      Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

      Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

      Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

      Volume 4: Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

      Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

      Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

      Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

      Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

      Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

      Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

      Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome, and Health

      Volume 12: Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry

      Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

      Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry

      Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

      Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

      Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

      Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

      Volume 19: Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering

      Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

      The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are presented in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome, and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

      All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

      This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Preface for Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

      Modern society has caused the accumulation of immense amounts of waste and by-products. One of the main sectors responsible for such effects is the food industry. As the production sector rapidly advances because of the development of improved and innovative approaches to facilitate food design and ingredient extraction, the resulting unnecessary organic material itself represents a great industry.

      In this context, bioconversion is a very productive and rapidly emerging concept, with great applications in the food industry, environmental science, and health. Bioconversion of food waste and food by-products could be widely diverse, when correlated with the innovative progress of technology in the food industry. Different instruments, methods, and completely new approaches have been developed to facilitate an efficient transformation of organic waste into a potential new resource.

      This volume aims to integrate the most innovative and efficient biotechnological directions into a new concept regarding bioconversion of food products and waste. Types of major by-products and waste, as well as their production processes and potential impacts are examined in this work, along with current bioconversion strategies. The impact of the newly obtained products by utilizing processed food waste on the environment, health, and economy is highlighted. Biological methods for energy and material recovery and conversion are exemplified throughout the volume, while pointing out novel methods, advantages, and current challenges.

      This volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from Italy, Brazil, Canada, Portugal, India, Bulgaria, Estonia, Mexico, Korea, Argentina, Spain, and South Africa.

      The selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food scientists, engineers, biotechnologists, biochemists, industrial companies, and also any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances on the field of food bioconversion.

      Chapter 1, Food Waste Utilization: Green Technologies for Manufacture of Valuable Products From Food Wastes and Agricultural Wastes prepared by Narayanan et al., describes commercially adaptable, green technologies that have been successfully developed for the economical utilization of food wastes and agricultural wastes, such as cheese whey and molasses. Valuable products (e.g., polymer-grade lactic acid and Xanthan gum) can be economically recovered from cheese whey and molasses using innovative biochemical processes and green technologies. In recent years, special emphasis has been given to mathematical modeling, simulation, and performance analysis of waste bioconversion bioreactors (e.g., biofilm-based reactors), leading to multiparameter software development.

      In Chapter 2, entitled The Importance of Microbial and Enzymatic Bioconversions of Isoflavones in Bioactive Compounds, Lopes et al. discuss the biological activities related to the health benefits of isoflavones, highlighting that the clinical efficacy of these phenolic compounds is related to their bioconversion to flavonoid aglycones and, further, to an important bioactive metabolite called equol, which has greater biological effects than other isoflavones. In recent years interest has grown in applications to improve equol production; this chapter discusses the relevance of isoflavone bioconversion, production, and bioavailability, as well as clinical implications.

      Chapter 3, The Recovery of Energy and Materials from Food Waste by Codigestion with Sludge: Internal Environment of Digester and Methanogenic Pathway written by Di Maria, reports the current status of knowledge about energy and material recovery from anaerobic codigestion of food waste and biowaste with sewage sludge, as well as the internal ecology of the digesters. Particular attention is paid to the implementation of this process in full-scale digesters of existing wastewater treatment plants.

      Chapter 4, Biotechnological Production of Conjugated Fatty Acids With Biological Properties prepared by Freitas and coworkers, presents a comprehensive outlook of the biotechnological production of conjugated linoleic acid, as well as an extensive discussion of its technical issues, limitations, challenges, and potential food and nutraceutical applications based on nutritional value and biological properties.

      Kalil et al. in Chapter 5, Bioproduct Extraction From Microbial Cells by Conventional and Nonconventional Techniques, review conventional and nonconventional techniques involved in the physicochemical production and bioconversion of bioproducts from fungi, bacteria, and microalgae, and describe their benefits and constraints. Modern techniques, such as supercritical fluid and ultrasound-assisted extraction, as well as emerging technologies, such as microwave-assisted extraction, pulsed electric fields, and organic solvent–free systems are discussed.

      In Chapter 6, Anticancer Action of Sulfated Flavonoids as Phase II Metabolites, Sak focuses on sulfated flavonoid metabolites and their bioconversion, concentrating on their formation, structure, and different anticancer properties. It seems that the substitution of the important hydroxyl moieties by sulfate groups in a flavonoid backbone might lead to substantial alterations in biological activities of these phytochemicals.

      Petrova and Petrov in Chapter 7, Prebiotic–Probiotic Relationship: The Genetic Fundamentals of Polysaccharides Conversion by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus Genera, describe the most frequently used applications of probiotic strains and prebiotic carbohydrates in the food industry, emphasizing the bioconversion ability of probiotics. The applications of inulin, fructooligosaccharides, galactooligosaccharides, isomaltooligosaccharides, resistant starch, xylooligosaccharides, and soybean oligosaccharides are revealed in terms of their prebiotic effects. Additionally, the potential routes and mechanisms of prebiotic microbial hydrolysis are discussed, and the genetic fundamentals of prebiotic–probiotic interrelations are clarified by a comparison of the latest bioinformatics data, concerning genes and enzymes involved in carbohydrates hydrolysis by lactobacilli and bifidobacteria.

      Chapter 8, entitled Plant By-Products and Food Industry Waste: A Source of Nutraceuticals and Biopolymers prepared by Routray and Orsat, summarizes different plant by-products and food industry wastes explored for nutraceutical and bioplastic production, as well as diverse technologies applied for that purpose, which in the future can decrease pollution and generate employment opportunities.

      Ochoa-Velasco et al. in Chapter 9, Biotic and Abiotic Factors to Increase Bioactive Compounds in Fruits and Vegetables, revise, analyze, and describe the most important biotic and abiotic factors, highlighting current investigations regarding the effect of novel methods employed to increase secondary metabolites in fruits and vegetables. It is important to understand the effect of different biotic and abiotic factors on the synthesis and bioconversion of these secondary metabolites on fruits and vegetables, so that they can be applied in the pharmaceutical, biotechnological, and food industries.

      Chapter 10, Biomass Conversion of Plant Residues prepared by Shin et al., reviews a variety of biomass conversion technologies, including thermochemical liquefaction and biological conversion technologies for producing clean and green fuels (i.e., biooil, H2, and CH4). This chapter contributes to a better understanding of the fundamentals and potentials of the various biomass conversion technologies.

      In Chapter 11, Incorporation and Bioconversion of Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Obtention of Enriched Fish prepared by Santos et al., the main focus is on the incorporation of different vegetable sources of n−3 fatty acids in the diet of farm-raised fish. This chapter reveals that the targeting of biosynthesis of long-chain n−3 fatty acids becomes a viable alternative to exploit the technological and functional benefits of enriched fish meat for human consumption.

      Chapter 12, Xylitol as Bioproduct From the Agro and Forest Biorefinery written by Vallejos and Area, examines several strategies for the extraction of xylose from biomass, the detoxification of the hydrolyzed material to obtain xylose syrup at a relatively low cost, the critical factors for the fermentation of xylose to xylitol, and the recovery of xylitol from fermentation broths. Improvements in biomass treatment, detoxification, and fermentation processes are needed to make xylitol production cost effective, thereby opening new markets and creating new applications for it.

      Chapter 13, entitled Importance of Phosphoric Acid for Functional Foods: Prebiotics Oligosaccharides prepared by Fontana et al., reveals that prebiotic oligosaccharides and the molecules resulting from bioconversion have great value for sustaining the growth of the beneficial human gut microbiota: lactobacilli and bifidobacteria; the generation of short-chain fatty acids to lower colon pH; and the inhibition of malicious microbial growth, which in conjunction with aberrant crypta may lead to the appearance of local tumors. The chapter also discusses phosphoric salts (i.e., orthophosphoric acid), which are common ingredients in the food industry.

      Gómez-Caravaca et al. in Chapter 14, Recovery of Phenolic Compounds From Olive Oil Mill Wastewaters by Physicochemical Methodologies, review the recovery of phenolic compounds from olive oil mill wastewaters by different extraction systems, such as membrane filtration, ionic resin purification, adsorbent materials, and solvent extraction. The recovery of these compounds through different physicochemical methodologies represents an important objective for the olive oil industry that will help in obtaining interesting extracts and diminishing the volume of one of the main olive oil industry by-products.

      Chapter 15, Boosting Our Soil With Green Technology: Conversion of Organic Waste Into "Black Gold prepared by Naidoo et al., discusses the efficient production and use of a complex living system, black gold" (vermicompost), a renewable source of plant nutrients. Vermicomposting provides a valuable means of handling high volumes of accessible organic wastes from livestock for raising crops organically. Soil amendment by worms improves soil health and plant growth and suppresses pathogens.

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Chapter 1

      Food Waste Utilization: Green Technologies for Manufacture of Valuable Products From Food Wastes and Agricultural Wastes

      C.M. Narayanan

      Shrijita Das

      Aditi Pandey    National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, West Bengal, India

      Abstract

      This chapter describes commercially adaptable, green technologies that have been successfully developed for the economical utilization of food wastes and agricultural wastes, such as cheese whey and molasses. Valuable products (e.g., polymer grade lactic acid, Xanthan gum) can be economically recovered from cheese whey and molasses using well-developed biochemical processes (green technologies). These are otherwise discarded as waste effluents, thereby causing acute environmental damage on one hand and loss of valuable nutrients and materials on the other. Design and analysis of industrial bioreactors that have been recommended in this connection, such as fluidized bed, semifluidized bed, inverse fluidized bed, and downflow stationary fixed film (DSFF) bioreactors have been discussed in detail. Special emphasis has been given to mathematical modeling, simulation, and performance analysis of these bioreactors (biofilm reactors), leading to multiparameter software development.

      Keywords

      food waste utilization

      bioplastics

      cheese whey

      molasses

      Xanthan gum

      bioreactor design

      software development

      1. Introduction

      Food technology involves not only food synthesis and food preservation, but also efficient utilization/disposal of food wastes as well. Many value-based products can be economically recovered from different food wastes and agricultural wastes. Food technologists and chemical engineers have a very important role to play in this regard.

      1.1. Types of Food Wastes and Their Utilization

      An excellent example in this connection is cheese whey, which is the effluent disposed by all dairy farms and milk processing industries. Cheese whey is nothing but the mother liquor left behind after the separation of casein (fats or butter) from milk. Typically, 17 kg of milk yields 1 kg of cheese and 1 kg of whey solids. The yield of cheese whey is thus quite high. Also, it contains 50% milk solids (mostly lactose, 20% of milk proteins, and most of the vitamins and minerals). Even though 70% of the nutrient value of milk resides in cheese whey, it is mostly disposed off as a waste effluent. Apart from the loss of potentially valuable food products/nutrients, such disposal practices also cause serious environmental damage (pollution of soil and water bodies).

      One of the best and most economical methods of utilization of cheese whey is to use it as a raw material for the commercial synthesis of polymer grade lactic acid. The lactose content of cheese whey can be effectively fermented to lactic acid using a microbial culture of Lactobacillus helveticus. Alternately, a culture of Lactobacillus bulgaricus may also be employed. The scheme is

      (1.1)

      Cheese whey needs pretreatments prior to fermentation. Apart from clarification and filtration, the proteins present in the whey are to be separated before feeding it to the bioreactor. The most recommended method for the separation of milk proteins from cheese whey is ultrafiltration (UF) (Meares, 1976; Narayanan and Bhattacharya, 2007; Schweitzer, 1979). Evaporation and spray drying of whey are ruled out, since they are not only too expensive, but also the dried whey will be unsuitable for human consumption due to its high salt and lactic acid content. Thermal processes also tend to denature the proteins present.

      UF forms an efficient and economical process, since the UF membrane selectively separates the proteins (all solids except the proteins pass through the membrane). The protein concentrate obtained will be thus free from unwanted salts, lactic acid, and lactose, and will be close to food-grade and suitable for human consumption. This protein concentrate can be sold as a valuable byproduct of the process. The scheme is sketched in Fig. 1.1.

      Figure 1.1   Pretreatment of Cheese Whey.

      The cheese whey permeate, which is now free from all proteins, can be used as the raw material (substrate) for lactic acid synthesis (after preliminary treatments and dilution to proper lactose content of 9.0 g/L).

      Xanthan gum is another commercially important product that can be manufactured economically starting from cheese whey permeate. Xanthan gum is a versatile polysaccharide that has found extensive applications as a stabilizing agent, emulsifying agent, thickening agent, and viscosity regulator in food and dairy industries, manufacture of paints and printing inks, in paper and textile industries. It is an excellent stabilizer for salad dressings and frozen and chilled dairy products. It is also used as an additive for enhanced oil recovery during mining and extraction of petroleum oils.

      Cheese whey is fermented using a culture of Xanthomonas campestris. The process, unlike lactic acid synthesis, is aerobic in nature and, therefore, sterile air is to be injected into the bioreactor from the bottom. The use of a centrifugal fibrous bed bioreactor that accommodates the immobilized X. campestris has been recommended. However, this uses glucose solution as the starting material, which, as stated earlier, cannot be recommended for the commercial manufacture of Xanthan gum (being too expensive). Three-phase semifluidized bed biofilm reactors are attractive propositions for the manufacture of Xanthan gum from cheese whey. This is discussed subsequently in this chapter.

      Molasses is another agricultural waste that has high potential for use as raw material for the commercial synthesis of lactic acid. It is the waste liquor discharged from cane sugar manufacturing industries. Sugar (or sucrose) is principally manufactured from sugar cane. Molasses is the mother liquor left behind after the crystallization of sugar from sugar cane juice. It still contains some dissolved sugar (dissolved sucrose) that cannot be further extracted economically on commercial scale. Molasses also is mostly discarded as waste liquor. At present, the only process in which it is used as a raw material is in the manufacture of ethanol (bioalcohol) by fermentation. The sucrose content of molasses is first hydrolyzed to glucose (and fructose) by the enzyme invertase (the process being called inversion of sucrose) and the glucose is subsequently converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide by the enzyme zymase.

      Like cheese whey, molasses is also a very promising raw material for biochemical synthesis of lactic acid. Being a waste effluent, the cost of raw material in this case is also practically negligible. The sucrose content of molasses can be fermented to lactic acid using a microbial culture of Enterococcus faecalis. Molasses is to be diluted to a sucrose concentration of 70–150 g/L prior to fermentation. High sucrose concentration prevents microbial growth, since sucrose acts as an inhibitor. The scheme is

      (1.2)

      1.2. Process of Ultrafiltration and Equipment

      UF, like reverse osmosis (RO) and other membrane-based processes, is also a chemical potential-based process. If we consider two chambers separated by a semipermeable membrane (UF membrane) as shown in Fig. 1.1, then the compartment on the left side of the membrane forms the feed compartment (compartment I) and the other, the permeate compartment (compartment II). Let a salt solution be pumped to the feed compartment and let pure solvent (say, water) be present in the permeate compartment. Since concentration of the solvent in the permeate compartment is higher than that in the feed compartment, the solvent will permeate through the membrane (the membrane used is essentially solvent permeable) from compartment II to compartment I, thereby diluting the feed solution. The transfer of solvent occurs from higher solvent concentration to lower solvent concentration. More precisely, the transfer occurs from higher chemical potential (μ2) to lower chemical potential (μ1). Here, μ2 is the chemical potential of the pure solvent which is higher than that of solvent in the salt solution (μ1). However, chemical potential is a function of temperature, pressure, and concentration. Mathematically,

      (1.3)

      As a result, if we increase the pressure on the feed side of the membrane (in other words, if we increase the pressure at which the feed solution is being pumped to the feed compartment), then the chemical potential of the solvent in the solution on the feed side (μ1) would increase. If the pumping pressure is gradually increased, the chemical potential (μ1) would continue to increase and at a particular stage, the value of μ1 would become equal to that of μ2. At this stage, the transfer of solvent across the membrane would cease (since μ1 = μ2). The pressure at which this occurs is called the osmotic pressure of the solution (π). In other words, osmotic pressure of a solution represents the pressure required to raise the chemical potential of the solvent in the solution to that of the pure solvent at any given temperature. Thus, when the pressure difference across the membrane (the transmembrane pressure drop, ∆P) becomes equal to the osmotic pressure difference (∆π), solvent transfer across the membrane ceases. Here,

      (1.4)

      (1.5)

      where P1 is the pressure on the feed side of the membrane (the pressure at which the salt solution is being pumped to the feed compartment) and P2 is that in the permeate compartment. In most cases, P2 = 1 atm. If P1 and thereby (∆P), is increased further, then μ1 would become larger than μ2 and the solvent will start permeating from the feed compartment (compartment I) to the permeate compartment (compartment II). This is what is called RO or UF. This occurs when and only when

      (1.6)

      or

      (1.7)

      Note that π1 and π2 represent osmotic pressure of the concentrated solution (discharged from compartment I) and that of the permeate solution, respectively. If the permeate solution is pure solvent, then π2 = 0.0. It may be noted that the transfer of solvent is occurring from compartment I (where its concentration is low and continues to decrease) to compartment II, where its concentration is high and continues to increase. In other words, the transfer occurs against the concentration gradient (from lower concentration to higher concentration). However, the law of thermodynamics (which is an universal law) has not been violated at all, since the transfer still occurs from a higher chemical potential to a lower chemical potential (μ1 > μ2).

      The major difference between RO and UF is that RO membranes are too selective and permit essentially the solvent to permeate through (and they retain practically all the dissolved solutes whether of low molecular weight or high molecular weight), while UF membranes are of larger pore size and they retain only the high molecular weight solutes (low molecular weight solutes and the solvent permeate through the membrane).

      It must be kept in mind that osmotic pressure of a solution is very much influenced by the temperature as well as the concentration and molecular weight of the dissolved solute. As the concentration of the dissolved solute in compartment I increases continuously due to discharge or separation of the solvent, the osmotic pressure of the solution (π1) also increases. To maintain the stability of the process, therefore, the operating transmembrane pressure drop (∆P) is selected from Eq. (1.6), by putting π1 = osmotic pressure of the final concentrate (final concentrated solution) discharged from compartment I.

      Also, the higher the molecular weight of the dissolved solute, the lower will be the osmotic pressure of the solution. Since the final concentrate discharged from a UF unit shall be composed of high molecular solutes only (e.g., milk proteins), the osmotic pressure of this concentrate (π1) shall be quite low. Consequently, the operating transmembrane pressure drop (∆P) required shall also be low (of the order of 3–7 atm). The operating cost of UF units shall be thus much lower, as compared to RO units in which an operating transmembrane pressure difference of 30–40 atm is required to be maintained.

      UF shall be thus an efficient as well as economical process for the separation of proteins from cheese whey. Since the proteins are of high molecular weight, the concentrate is of low osmotic pressure and consequently, the transmembrane pressure difference (operating pressure of membrane module) required is low, such as 3–5 atm. The membrane may be made of treated polyamide, polysulfone, or polyfuran. Thin film polymer composites are also popular.

      The UF module employed may be spiral-wound (this employs sheet membranes) tubular, or hollow fiber type (Figs. 1.2–1.4). Spiral-wound UF modules (Fig. 1.2) employ spiral cartridges 10–20 cm in diameter and 0.5–1.0 m in length. They provide large membrane surface (300–900 m²/m³), but are relatively more complex to construct and are not readily amenable to cleaning. The feed solution flows axially (parallel to the membrane surface) from the feed end to the discharge end (concentrate end). A plastic netting is often inserted into the feed channel to induce turbulence and to minimize concentration polarization (discussed subsequently).

      Figure 1.2   Schematic of Spiral-Wound Ultrafiltration Module.

      Figure 1.3   Schematic of Tubular Ultrafiltration Module.

      Figure 1.4   Schematic of Hollow Fiber Ultrafiltration Module.

      The tubular module (Fig. 1.3) employs 20–100 perforated tubes, each 12.5–25.4 mm in diameter and the inside surface of each being coated with the membrane. The entire tube bundle is enclosed in a cylindrical shell (made of stainless steel or ceramic/polymer composites), thereby resembling a shell and tube heat exchanger. The feed solution is pumped through the tubes, the permeate being discharged from the shell. The concentrate (or retentate) leaves the other end of the module. Tubular modules provide relatively lower membrane area (150–300 m²/m³), but have good resistance to mechanical damage and are more amenable to cleaning.

      Hollow fiber devices (Fig. 1.4) consist of a fiber bundle (2.0–4.0 million fibers are used, each of a diameter of 500–1000 μm) enclosed in a cylindrical shell. Each fiber is made of the membrane material. The feed solution flows through the fibers and the concentrate (or retentate) is collected from the other end of the module. The permeate collects in the shell and is discharged through the shell outlet nozzle. These devices provide very large membrane area per unit volume (9,000–10,000 m²/m³) and are extremely compact. But, they are more complex to construct and maintain, less amenable to mechanical cleaning. Problems due to concentration polarization are lowest in these devices.

      As in the case with all separation processes involving selective transport, concentration polarization is a phenomenon (though undesirable) that inevitably occurs in UF, also. Due to build-up of retained solute at the membrane surface (membrane–liquid interface), a concentrated boundary layer, called the gel layer, is formed there. This gel layer offers additional resistance to the transport of solvent (and low molecular solutes) and tends to decrease the effective permeate rate. This is what is termed as concentration polarization. Turbulence promoters (plastic nettings in spiral-wound devices, static mixers) are often introduced into the flow field to minimize this effect. An alternate proposition is to use tubular membrane modules of diverging–converging design (Narayanan, 2011a). Each tube is of diverging–converging geometry (Fig. 1.5) with a minimum diameter (D1), maximum diameter (D2), and segment length (LS). The angle of convergence/divergence (θ) employed is only 5 degree (tan θ = 1/12). From simple geometry, it can be easily deduced that

      Figure 1.5   (A) Schematic of constricted tube ultrafiltration module. (B) Schematic of diverging–converging geometry (separate view).

      (1.8)

      The dimensions D1, D2, and LS are so chosen that tan θ is close to (1/12).

      Such a module has been reported to minimize problems due to concentration polarization and membrane fouling (clogging) and consequently providing higher permeation rates and enhanced solute rejection (Narayanan, 2011a,b). The operating cost of the module is only marginally higher than that of a straight tube module of same membrane area per unit length, though there will be an increase in the fabrication cost and initial installation cost.

      Fermentation of cheese whey permeate and molasses to synthesize lactic acid can be performed in fluidized bed, semifluidized bed, or inverse fluidized bed bioreactors or in downflow stationary fixed film (DSFF) bioreactors. The lactose concentration of the cheese whey permeate is to be adjusted to about 9.0 g/L in advance to promote adequate bacterial growth and activity. Similarly, the sucrose concentration of molasses must be adjusted to 70–150 g/L, prior to feeding to the bioreactor. Computer-aided design and operation of the previous bioreactors are discussed in detail in the next section.

      1.3. Synthesis of Bioplastic From Food and Agricultural Wastes

      The lactic acid synthesized is of polymer grade. It can be used as the starting material (monomer) for the manufacture of the bioplastic, polylaevo lactic acid (PLLA). The overall reaction may be represented as:

      (1.9)

      PLLA is one of the most promising environmentally friendly (green) plastics of the era, since it closely resembles polystyrene (PS) and polypropylene (PP) in most of its properties. In addition, it is also biodegradable by soil bacteria. The disposal of plastic waste shall not, therefore, cause any environmental concern. Waste PLLA can be composted in earthen trenches along with other biodegradable materials, such as plant and vegetable wastes and animal wastes. A comparison between the characteristics of PLLA and those of PS and PP is illustrated in Table 1.1.

      Table 1.1

      Comparison between PLLA bioplastic and synthetic plastics (PP, PS).

      PLLA, Polylaevo lactic acid; PP, polypropylene; PS, polystyrene.

      The PLLA bioplastic can thus substitute popular synthetic plastics, such as PS and PP in all industrial/domestic applications. It is, in fact, superior to synthetic plastics due to its biodegradable nature and thus is truly a green plastic. However, the present market price of PLLA bioplastic is much higher (almost 8–10 times higher) than commercial synthetic plastics, such as PS and PP. This is due to the high cost of the raw material used for the monomer (lactic acid) synthesis. At present, lactic acid synthesis is being practiced starting from lactose, glucose, or sucrose, which are very expensive raw materials and cannot be recommended for commercial manufacture of lactic acid.

      Once, as stated earlier, lactic could be synthesized economically on a commercial scale starting from waste effluents, such as cheese whey or molasses, then the manufacturing cost of PLLA shall decrease significantly and its market price shall become comparable with that of popular synthetic plastics, such as PS or PP.

      Polymerization of lactic acid to PLLA biopolymer can be accomplished without much difficulty through well-established processing techniques and equipment (Shreve, 1977; Steinbüchel, 2001).

      Lactic acid is separated from the fermentation broth by precipitation as calcium acetate, which is subsequently hydrolyzed to lactic acid using dilute sulfuric acid. The precipitated calcium sulfate is separated by filtration and the recovered lactic acid is made to dimerize (at ordinary temperature and pressure) to form a solid, cyclic dimer. The formation of this cyclic dimer is relatively fast and occurs without the aid of high temperature or high pressure. The dimer is then melted and subjected to ring-opening polymerization in an autoclave. This process is exactly analogous to polymerization of caprolactam (also a ring compound) to polycaprolactam or Nylon 6 (Shreve, 1977). Nylon 6 is the first man-made fiber manufactured in the world (by Du Pont, USA). The same type of polymerization autoclave and the similar operating conditions (temperature = 200°C, pressure = 1.5 atm) could be employed in the case of PLLA production as well. Since the process of Nylon 6 synthesis is very well-established, the polymerization unit for PLLA synthesis could be designed and installed with confidence. As in the case of Nylon 6, the molten PLLA is extruded out from the polymerization kettle, then cooled in a blast of nitrogen gas and also under water to form long, endless polymer ribbons, which are cut into chips and stored. A schematic of the process is shown in Fig. 1.6A–B.

      Figure 1.6   (A) and (B) Condensed Flowsheet of PLLA bioplastic synthesis.

      2. Kinetics of Bioconversion

      The bioreactors under consideration are biofilm reactors and they are heterogenous systems. The reaction mixture is composed of two phases, such as the solid phase (particle–biofilm aggregates) and the liquid phase (feed solution/substrate solution). In the case of heterogenous systems like this, it is necessary to define the intrinsic rate of bioconversion, (−rS)(int), as well as the global rate of bioconversion, (−rS), separately. The kinetic equations developed in the laboratory predict the intrinsic rate of bioconversion, which is the rate of bioconversion or biochemical reaction occurring in the biofilm. The global rate of bioconversion (which is the actual rate of bioconversion attained in the bioreactor) shall be lower than this. This is because in heterogenous bioreactors, an additional resistance comes into play, which is the resistance to substrate transfer into the biofilm. The substrate (in the present case, sucrose or lactose) has to first diffuse into the biofilm and thereafter, the reaction (bioconversion) occurs. This additional resistance to the transport of substrate into the biofilm is accounted for by the parameter called the effectiveness factor (η). In other words, the global rate shall be equal to the product of the intrinsic rate and the effectiveness factor. Thus,

      (1.10)

      Computation of effectiveness factor (η) is discussed subsequently in this chapter. The value of η can be as high as 0.8–0.9 and as low as 0.45–0.5. Due to this additional resistance, the global rate does get lowered. However, due to the significantly high biomass concentration in the biofilm (xf), the rate of bioconversion in biofilm reactors shall be still much higher than that attained in a suspended-growth stirred tank reactor.

      2.1. Principles of Kinetic Analysis

      All the kinetic studies reported in literature are those that have been performed in laboratory shake flasks or conical flasks, in which suspended growth of microbes occur. For example, Anjana and Kumar (2008) have studied kinetics of fermentation of molasses to lactic acid (bioconversion of sucrose content of molasses to lactic acid) using a culture of E. faecalis RKY1. They observed that the process follows Monod-type kinetic equations. They report that though substrate inhibition to microbial growth is relatively insignificant, product inhibition to microbial activity does exist and cannot be neglected. However, as stated previously, in biofilm reactors under consideration [stirred tank bioreactors are restricted to small capacities and consequently, for commercial synthesis of lactic acid at large capacities, we have to employ fluidized bed, semifluidized bed, or inverse fluidized bed biofilm reactors or downflow stationary fixed film (DSFF) bioreactors], attached growth of microbes occur. These bioreactors either employ support particles made of silica, polymer composites, or activated carbon, each particle being surrounded by a thin film of microbial solution (biofilm) or vertical channels, the inner surface of each being coated with a thin film of microbial solution. Microbial growth does occur in the biofilm and the thickness of the film (δ) tends to increase. However, when the biofilm thickness increases beyond a certain value, it gets detached from the particle surface (the phenomenon termed as sloughing) and is immediately replenished by a fresh film. Also, the dead or decayed cells fall out from the biofilm and are almost instantaneously replaced by new living cells. Due to these, both the thickness of the biofilm (δ) as well as the biomass concentration in the biofilm (xf) remain more or less constant throughout the entire operation of the bioreactor. This is one of the exclusive characteristics of biofilm reactors.

      Further, neither the substrate (sucrose or lactose) nor the product (lactic acid) accumulates in the biofilm and as a consequence, neither the substrate concentration nor the product concentration in the biofilm shall be of large magnitude at any instant. This brings down (in many cases, eliminates) the chances of occurrence of substrate inhibition or product inhibition to microbial growth and activity.

      2.2. Development of Kinetic Equations

      The kinetic equation proposed by Anjana and Kumar (2008) for suspended growth of microbes and substrate utilization gets modified to the following form when applied to attached growth (the product inhibition to microbial growth is neglected and the biomass concentration in the biofilm is assumed constant and equal to xf):

      (1.11)

      (1.12)

      where (−rS) = intrinsic rate of substrate consumption/conversion, g/(L·s); μm, KS = kinetic constants; μm = maximum specific growth rate of microbes, h–1; KS = saturation constant, g/L; Y = overall yield coefficient for cell mass production, g/g; CS = substrate (sucrose) concentration in liquid bulk, g/L; xf = biomass (cell mass) concentration in biofilm, g/L; f = fractional volume of biofilm in particle–biofilm aggregate, m³/m³; ɛ = total voidage (or void fraction) of the bed, ɛf = in case of fluidized bed, ɛp = in case of packed bed or static bed); ɛL = fractional liquid holdup in the bed.

      Assuming that all the voids of the bed are completely filled with the liquid (which is true in the case of most industrial fluidized bed bioreactors/packed bed bioreactors), ɛL = ɛ. For the same reason, we may very well assume,

      (1.13)

      (1.13a)

      The parameters (f, ɛ, ɛL) have been additionally incorporated to maintain dimensional consistency. To note that xf stands for mass of microbial cells per unit volume of biofilm and therefore,

      (1.14)

      Eq. (1.12) may be rewritten in a more compact form as

      (1.15)

      where

      (1.16)

      If dP is the diameter of the support particle (silica granule, polymer bead) and δ is the thickness of the biofilm (which, as stated earlier, remains more or less constant throughout the operation of the bioreactor), then the average size (diameter) of the particle–biofilm aggregate (dPm) is

      (1.17)

      Accordingly,

      (1.18)

      It may be noted that based on the above definition of f, the density of the particle–biofilm aggregate (ρSm) is

      (1.19)

      where ρS = density of support particle; ρm = density of microbial solution.

      The reported values of kinetic constants (Anjana and Kumar, 2008) are

      (1.20)

      The kinetic equation [Eq. (1.11)] has been experimentally verified by Das and Narayanan (2016) as well. Based on their kinetic studies in the laboratory, Schepers et al. (2002) have reported that a kinetic equation of the type shown in Eq. (1.11) could be used for the fermentation of cheese whey permeate also (for the bioconversion of lactose content of cheese whey permeate to lactic acid) using a culture of L. helveticus. The magnitudes of kinetic constants shall be, however, different as given in Eq. (1.21):

      (1.21)

      Once the kinetics of bioconversion is known, we can proceed to the design of bioreactors.

      In the case of Xanthan gum synthesis from cheese whey, the process reportedly follows Contois-type kinetic equation (Zabot et al., 2011). As stated earlier, Xanthan gum synthesis is an aerobic process and we have to employ a three-phase biofilm reactor for the same. Accordingly the kinetic equation takes the following form:

      (1.22)

      where

      (1.23)

      (1.24)

      To note that ɛf is the total voidage of the fluidized bed (for the packed bed, this is to be replaced by ɛP) and ɛfL is the fractional liquid holdup in the bed (it is to be replaced by ɛPL in the case of packed bed). For a three-phase biofilm reactor,

      (1.25)

      (1.26)

      where εPg and εfg are the fractional gas holdup in the packed bed and that in fluidized bed, respectively.

      Readers must also take note of the fact the expression for μm(app) given in Eq. (1.23) (for three-phase biofilm reactor) is different from that given in Eq. (1.74) (for two-phase biofilm reactor). The major difference is that we may substitute ɛ = ɛf = ɛfL and ɛL = ɛfL in Eq. (1.16) for two-phase (liquid–solid) systems, but ɛ = ɛf and ɛL = ɛfL for three-phase systems (ɛ is not equal to ɛfL, but is larger than ɛfL).

      Typical experimental values of kinetic constants reported by Zabot et al. (2011) are

      (1.27)

      3. Design of Industrial Bioreactors

      As stated earlier, for the large-scale manufacture of polymer grade lactic acid, stirred tank reactors will be unsuitable. We must select biofilm reactors. The system then becomes heterogenous in nature and the design and analysis of these bioreactors are to be performed keeping this multiphase character of the system in mind. Biofilm reactors may be broadly classified into two categories:

      1. Bioreactors that employ support particles, such as silica granules, polymer beads, particles of activated carbon etc., each particle having been soaked with the microbial solution. Each support particle is thus surrounded by a thin film of microbial cells (called the biofilm) and thus forms a particle–biofilm aggregate (Fig. 1.7). Fluidized bed, semifluidized bed, and inverse fluidized bed biofilm reactors fall under this category. The bioreactor is thus composed of two phases, such as the solid phase (particle–biofilm aggregates) and the liquid phase (substrate solution), which also forms the continuous phase. Three-phase operation is also possible (e.g., in the case of aerobic fermentation processes), wherein the gas (say, air) moves up the bioreactor in the form of discrete bubbles.

      2. Bioreactors employ a bundle of tubes or vertical channels (flow passages), with the microbial cells forming a thin film on the inside surface of each tube/flow passage. DSFF bioreactors belong to this category and they operate in the downflow mode (Fig. 1.8).

      Figure 1.7   Schematic of Particle–Biofilm Aggregate.

      Figure 1.8   Schematic of Downflow Stationary Fixed Film (DSFF) Bioreactor (Showing Single Flow Channel).

      The performance of each bioreactor is to be first analyzed mathematically and a simulation model (software package) developed, which is to be subsequently verified by comparing with experimental data (pilot plant test data). Once the performance characteristics of the bioreactor have been established both mathematically as well as experimentally, industrial adaptation of the system could be done with confidence.

      3.1. Fluidized Bed Biofilm Reactors

      What is a fluidized bed?

      It consists of a vertical column that accommodates solid particles that remain suspended in an ascending stream of liquid (fluid). Fluidized beds can be liquid-fluidized, gas-fluidized, or gas–liquid-fluidized beds. We shall confine our discussion here to liquid-fluidized beds, in which particulate fluidization occurs (in gas-fluidized beds, aggregative fluidization could often occur).

      We know that in a packed bed (or packed bed reactor column), there is no relative motion between particles, each particle sits on other particles (Fig. 1.9). It is thus called the static bed, of height LS. The liquid or feed solution is admitted from the bottom and it moves up through the interstices or voids between particles (it also flows over the particles) and the product solution exits from the top. The porous plate at the bottom functions as the liquid distributor and also as the packing support. The voidage or void fraction (ɛP), (which is the ratio of void volume to the total volume of the bed) of industrial packed bed reactors/bioreactors usually ranges from 0.3 to 0.4. The superficial velocity of the liquid, U(sup), through the packed bed is less than the minimum fluidization velocity, Umf. The superficial velocity of the liquid is nothing but the liquid velocity based on the total cross-sectional area of the tower/column. Thus,

      Figure 1.9   Schematic of Packed Bed Bioreactor: U(sup) < Umf, each particle rests on the other. ɛP = 0.3–0.4.

      (1.28)

      where Q0 = volumetric flow rate of liquid/solution, m³/s; D = diameter of the column/tower.

      Packed bed reactors/bioreactors are thus confined to low capacities (low

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