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    Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food
    Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food
    Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food
    Ebook1,225 pages14 hours

    Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

    By Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu and Alina Maria Holban

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    About this ebook

    Ingredients Extraction by Physico-chemical Methods, Volume Four, the latest release in the Handbook of Food Bioengineering series, reveals the most investigated extraction methods of ingredients and their impact on the food industry. This resource describes types of ingredients that may be extracted through physico-chemical methods (i.e. specific plants, fruits, spices, etc.), along with their particularities to help readers understand their biological effect and solve research problems. The extraction methods of bioactive compounds and functional ingredients are discussed, along with information on green ingredient extraction strategies to help reduce harmful environmental and health effects.

    Extraction methods in this book can be applied for multiple purposes within the food industry, such as ingredients separation for food development, the purification and separation of toxic compounds from a food mixture, and the recovery of natural bioactive compounds.

    • Offers advanced knowledge and skills of physiochemical analysis for ingredient extraction
    • Presents various methods for food component analysis to evaluate structure function relations in changing environments
    • Discusses the importance of enzymes during processing and storage of foods
    • Includes methods to evaluate and enhance extraction, such as ultrasound, to produce novel foods more efficiently
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAcademic Press
    Release dateJul 26, 2017
    ISBN9780128112021
    Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

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      Book preview

      Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food - Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

      Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 4

      Edited by

      Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Alina Maria Holban

      Table of Contents

      Cover

      Title page

      Copyright

      List of Contributors

      Foreword

      Series Preface

      Preface for Volume 4: Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

      Chapter 1: Methods for Extractions of Value-Added Nutraceuticals From Lignocellulosic Wastes and Their Health Application

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Phytochemicals and Health

      3. Phytochemicals and Health Benefits

      4. Disturbing the Lingocellulosic Arrangement

      5. Mathematical Modeling

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 2: Modern Extraction Techniques for Drugs and Medicinal Agents

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Various Extraction Procedures

      3. Conclusions

      Chapter 3: Advances in Extraction, Fractionation, and Purification of Low-Molecular Mass Compounds From Food and Biological Samples

      Abstract

      1. Problem Overview

      2. Recent Advances in Development of Extraction Protocols From Complex Matrices

      3. Conclusions

      Chapter 4: Valorization of Agrifood By-Products by Extracting Valuable Bioactive Compounds Using Green Processes

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Green Extraction of Natural Products From Agrifood By-products

      3. Enzyme-Assisted Extraction

      4. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction

      5. Microwave-Assisted Extraction

      6. Extractions Assisted by Pulsed Electric Technologies

      7. Pressurized Liquid Extraction

      8. Supercritical Fluid Extraction

      9. Instant Controlled Pressure Drop

      10. Combined (Hybrid) Green Extraction Processes

      11. Integrated Green Extraction Processes

      12. Future Trends

      Chapter 5: Extraction of Bioactive Phenolic Compounds by Alternative Technologies

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Bioactive Phenolic Compounds and Human Health Benefits

      3. Extraction Processes

      4. Important Parameters in the Extraction Process

      5. Extraction Optimization

      6. Advantages and Drawbacks of Alternative Extraction Technologies

      7. Industrial Approaches

      8. Future Prospects

      9. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 6: The Extraction of Heavy Metals From Vegetable Samples

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Heavy Metals in Soil and Plants

      3. Extraction

      4. Experimental Part

      5. Results and Discussions

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 7: Extraction and Use of Functional Plant Ingredients for the Development of Functional Foods

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Conventional Extraction Techniques

      3. Nonconventional Extraction Techniques

      4. Defining Functional Foods

      5. Functional Food Product Design: Case Studies

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 8: Extracting Bioactive Compounds From Natural Sources Using Green High-Energy Approaches: Trends and Opportunities in Lab- and Large-Scale Applications

      Abstract

      1. Extraction: The Cornerstone for Recovery of Bioactive Compounds

      2. High-Energy Extraction: A Modern Approach for Recovering Bioactive Compounds

      3. Experimental Design (DOE) in the Spotlight of Optimization Strategies

      4. Bioactive Compounds Recovery: A High-Energy-Oriented Approach for Extracting Them From Natural Sources

      5. Large-Scale High Energy Extraction: Is It an Economically Feasible Solution?

      6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

      Chapter 9: Assessment of the State-of the-Art Developments in the Extraction of Antioxidants From Marine Algal Species

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Algae

      3. Algae as Antioxidant Sources

      4. Extraction Methods

      5. Conclusions

      6. Future Outlook

      Chapter 10: The Use of Ultrasound as an Enhancement Aid to Food Extraction

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Ultrasonic Equipment

      3. Extraction

      4. Alteration of Functional Properties

      5. Recycling of Food Waste

      6. Potential for Larger-Scale Applications

      7. Conclusions

      Chapter 11: Extraction of Bioactive Compounds From Olive Leaves Using Emerging Technologies

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Extraction Methods

      3. Extraction of Bioactive Compounds From Olive Leaves

      4. Conclusions

      Chapter 12: Separation of Bioactive Whey Proteins and Peptides

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Separation of Lactoferrin and Lactoperoxidase

      3. Casein Macropeptide

      4. Bioactive Peptides

      5. Conclusions and Future Trends

      Chapter 13: Phytochemicals: An Insight to Modern Extraction Technologies and Their Applications

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Chemical Extraction Techniques

      3. Physical Methods of Extraction

      4. Conclusions

      Chapter 14: Extraction Technologies and Solvents of Phytocompounds From Plant Materials: Physicochemical Characterization and Identification of Ingredients and Bioactive Compounds From Plant Extract Using Various Instrumentations

      Abstract

      1. Extraction of Colorant From Plant Parts

      2. Extraction of Piper betle Oil

      3. Extraction of Vegetable Oil/Seed Oil

      4. Extraction of Sabah Snake Grass (Clinacanthus nutans)

      5. Conclusions

      Chapter 15: An Energy-Based Approach to Scale Up Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Plant Bioactives

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Extraction Kinetics and Mechanism

      3. Influencing Parameters

      4. Energy-Based Parameters

      5. Energy-Based Optimization Method

      6. Energy-Based Modeling Method

      7. Concept and Strategy of Commercialization

      8. Conclusions

      Index

      Copyright

      Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

      125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom

      525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, United States

      50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

      The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

      Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

      No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

      This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

      Notices

      Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

      Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

      To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

      British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

      A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

      ISBN: 978-0-12-811521-3

      For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

      Publisher: Andre Gerhard Wolff

      Acquisition Editor: Nina Bandeira

      Editorial Project Manager: Jaclyn Truesdell

      Production Project Manager: Caroline Johnson

      Designer: Matthew Limbert

      Typeset by Thomson Digital

      List of Contributors

      Cristóbal N. Aguilar,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

      Pedro Aguilar-Zárate,     Instituto Tecnológico de Ciudad Valles, Tecnológico Nacional de México, Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosí, México

      Alma Alarcon-Rojo,     Autonomous University of Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico

      Pedro Aqueveque,     Development of Agro industries Technology Center, University of Concepción, Chillán, Chile

      Juan A. Ascacio-Valdés,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

      Amra Bratovcic,     University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina

      Romilson Brito,     MeditBio and University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

      Ramiro A. Carciochi,     National University of Central Buenos Aires, Olavarría, Buenos Aires, Argentina

      Chung-Hung Chan,     Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

      Karina Cruz,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

      Rui M.S. Cruz,     MeditBio and University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

      Leandro G. D’Alessandro,     Lille University, INRA, ISA, Artois University, University of Littoral Opal Coast, Charles Viollette Institute, Lille, France

      Krasimir Dimitrov,     Lille University, INRA, ISA, Artois University, University of Littoral Opal Coast, Charles Viollette Institute, Lille, France

      Mohamed H. Abd El-Salam,     National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt

      Mayyada El-Sayed

      American University in Cairo, New Cairo

      National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt

      Safinaz El-Shibiny,     National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt

      Hanaa Essa

      American University in Cairo, New Cairo

      Agriculture Research Centre, Giza, Egypt

      Daisy Fleita,     American University in Cairo, New Cairo, Egypt

      Nor D. Hassan,     University of Technology Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

      Amit K. Keshari,     Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

      Siddhartha Maity,     Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

      Siti N.H. Mamat,     University of Technology Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

      Diana B. Muñiz-Márquez,     Instituto Tecnológico de Ciudad Valles, Tecnológico Nacional de México, Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosí, México

      Ida I. Muhamad,     University of Technology Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

      Norazlina M. Nawi,     University of Technology Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

      Gek Cheng Ngoh,     University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

      Zoe Nikolaidou,     Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki (ATEITh), Thessaloniki, Greece

      Susana M. Nolasco,     National University of Central Buenos Aires, Olavarría, Buenos Aires, Argentina

      Margarita Ocampo,     Development of Agro industries Technology Center, University of Concepción, Chillán, Chile

      Amra Odobasic,     University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina

      Larysa Paniwnyk,     Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom

      Rudi Radrigán,     Development of Agro industries Technology Center, University of Concepción, Chillán, Chile

      Amit Rai,     Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

      Vinit Raj,     Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

      Priyanka Rao,     Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

      Wahida A. Rashid,     University of Technology Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

      Virendra Rathod,     Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

      Carlos Reyes-Luna,     Instituto Tecnológico de Ciudad Valles, Tecnológico Nacional de México, Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosí, México

      Dalia Rifaat,     American University in Cairo, New Cairo, Egypt

      Raúl Rodríguez,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

      María M. Rodriguez,     National University of Central Buenos Aires, Olavarría, Buenos Aires, Argentina

      José C. Rodriguez-Figueroa,     Autonomous University of Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico

      Sudipta Saha,     Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

      Indira Sestan,     University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina

      Vassilia J. Sinanoglou,     Technological Education Institution of Athens, Egaleo, Greece

      Ashok K. Singh,     Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

      Petros Smirniotis,     Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki (ATEITh), Thessaloniki, Greece

      Nuraimi A. Tan,     University of Technology Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

      Maricela Toma,     Costin D. Neniţescu–Institute of Organic Chemistry of the Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania

      Thalia Tsiaka

      Institute of Biology, Medicinal Chemistry and Biotechnology, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens

      Technological Education Institution of Athens, Egaleo

      University of Athens, Athens, Greece

      Siddharth Vats,     Shri Ram Swaroop Memorial University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

      Peggy Vauchel,     Lille University, INRA, ISA, Artois University, University of Littoral Opal Coast, Charles Viollette Institute, Lille, France

      Margarida C. Vieira,     MeditBio and University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

      Elżbieta Włodarczyk,     Koszalin University of Technology, Koszalin, Poland

      Jorge E. Wong-Paz,     Instituto Tecnológico de Ciudad Valles, Tecnológico Nacional de México, Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosí, México

      Rozita Yusoff,     University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

      Paweł K. Zarzycki,     Koszalin University of Technology, Koszalin, Poland

      Panagiotis Zoumpoulakis

      Institute of Biology, Medicinal Chemistry and Biotechnology, National Hellenic Research Foundation

      National Hellenic Research Foundation

      University of Athens, Athens, Greece

      Foreword

      In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

      The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

      Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

      Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng)

      Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials,

      Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest,

      Bucharest, Romania

      Series Preface

      The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

      Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the amazing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

      While health and well-being are key drivers for the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

      Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

      Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

      Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

      Volume 4: Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

      Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

      Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

      Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

      Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

      Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

      Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

      Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome, and Health

      Volume 12: Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry

      Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

      Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry

      Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

      Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

      Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

      Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

      Volume 19: Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering

      Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

      The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry——flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are presented in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome, and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in the volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

      All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

      This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Preface for Volume 4: Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

      Numerous food-related compounds have proved their additional beneficial effects, along with their nutritional properties. Some food ingredients have been utilized for centuries in traditional and preventive therapy for their health-promoting effect, while others may have an impact on various industries (i.e., food, chemical, biotechnological, and pharmaceutical) and even on our environment. A key factor in the production of such ingredients is represented by their physicochemical extraction technique. Extraction methods are variable, and great progress has been made in this field in the past decade. This book describes the most utilized methods developed for ingredients extraction and the anticipated design of future approaches. Intelligent systems have recently emerged to obtain useful and innovative ingredients from plants, exotic fruits, and spices, their impact on the quality and development of the food industry being impressive.

      This book has aimed to bring together the most interesting and investigated aspects of ingredients extraction and the most important technologies, to obtain specific and valuable food-related compounds for improved food quality, health promotion, and environmental protection in the context of a sustainable food industry. Classical and newest technologies, along with their applicability spectrum and their main advantages and drawbacks, are presented within this volume.

      The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from France, the United Kingdom, India, Poland, Mexico, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Chile, Greece, Egypt, Portugal, and Malaysia.

      The selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food scientists, engineers, biotechnologists, biochemists, and industrial companies, but also any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances on the field of ingredients extraction and food processing.

      Chapter 1, prepared by Vats, is entitled Methods for Extractions of Value-Added Nutraceuticals From Lignocellulosic Wastes and Their Health Application. In this work, the author introduces readers to contributions in the field of food ingredients extraction from various sources, such as medicinally valuable phytochemicals, nutraceuticals functional foods, fruit purees and powders, biochemicals, electrolytes blends, health-promoting agents, nutritive oils, antimicrobial products, bioactive compounds, commercially valuable food flavoring and additives compounds of a biochemical nature, proteins, nutritional supplements, and personal and cosmetic care, as well as drugs and pharmacophores from eukaryotic and prokaryotic cultured cells or from plants, animals, and microbes. The main extraction methods, such as standard physical extraction procedures and solvents-based approaches, are also discussed.

      Saha and collaborators, in Chapter 2, Modern Extraction Techniques for Drugs and Medicinal Agents, reveal various physicochemical methods of extraction that comprise microwave-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, liquid phase microextraction, solid phase extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, cloud-point extraction, enzyme-assisted extraction, membrane-based microextraction, and cooling-assisted microextraction. These are the commonly used and modern techniques in terms of isolation and separation of ingredients from both chemical and biological mixtures.

      Chapter 3, entitled Advances in Extraction, Fractionation, and Purification of Low-Molecular Mass Compounds From Food and Biological Samples, written by Włodarczyk and Zarzycki, gives an overview concerning current extraction and quantification protocols of bioactive substances, which are recently designed for analytical and technological applications of food processing. Generally, extraction, fractionation, and purification are critical issues for both analytical applications and technological processes involving food and biological samples. The authors discuss methodological approaches depending on the expected outcomes and physicochemical properties of a given product.

      In Chapter 4, Valorization of Agrifood By-Products by Extracting Valuable Bioactive Compounds Using Green Processes, prepared by Carciochi et al., is presented the current challenge for the food industry, related to the exploitation of various by-products as sources of new commodities using eco-friendly technologies with an optimal cost-benefit relationship. The main green technologies used to recover natural products from agrifood by-products, such as enzyme-assisted extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, electrically assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, and instant controlled pressure drop, are presented here.

      Wong-Paz and coworkers, in Chapter 5, Extraction of Bioactive Phenolic Compounds by Alternative Technologies, describe the advances in the research done on bioactive phenolic compound (BPC) extraction using alternative extraction technologies. In addition, the important parameters influencing its performance, the basic theory of reactions present, and the direct effect of alternative extraction technologies on BPCs are also included. Advantages and drawbacks of the alternative extraction technologies on BPC extraction with regard to conventional extraction technologies are summarized. Finally, a perspective and general conclusion are presented.

      Chapter 6, The Extraction of Heavy Metals From Vegetable Samples, prepared by Odobašić and collaborators, describes types of extraction approaches in order to determine the origin of metals and the efficiency of their removal. It is considered that metals that are in an adsorption and exchangeable phase are more weakly bonded and more easily bioavailable and because of that have anthropogenic origins. Metals in an inert residual fraction indicate natural origin. Thus, these separation approaches bring essential information on the nature and potential impact of various heavy metals in foods.

      Radrigán et al., in Chapter 7, Extraction and Use of Functional Plant Ingredients for the Development of Functional Foods, offer an interesting collection of technical extraction particularities of active principles of biomaterials, with emphasis on their importance in the development of functional foods, since some biomaterials are used as supplements in the diet.

      In Chapter 8, prepared by Tsiaka and coworkers, Extracting Bioactive Compounds From Natural Sources Using Green High-Energy Approaches: Trends and Opportunities in Lab- and Large-Scale Applications, are explored the main concepts and principles of high-energy extraction techniques in selective and targeted extraction of bioactive or functional molecules with health-promoting properties. In addition, a special allusion is made to the significance of optimization strategies and experimental design models in the improvement of the extraction procedures. Furthermore, arguments presented in this review are supported by a variety of examples and peer-reviewed articles published over the past 3 years. Finally, the possibilities and economic feasibility of adopting and scaling up high-energy extraction techniques to the industrial level is investigated in order to define the framework of their implementation and the future potential.

      El-Sayed et al., in Chapter 9, entitled Assessment of the State-of-the-Art Developments in the Extraction of Antioxidants From Marine Algal Species, critically assess the state-of-the-art methods for extracting antioxidants, with emphasis on sulfated polysaccharides (SPs), from green, red, and brown algae. The evaluation made by these authors is primarily based on the yields and antioxidant activities of the extracted SPs, in addition to other technical, economic, and environmental criteria.

      Chapter 10, The Use of Ultrasound as an Enhancement Aid to Food Extraction, written by Paniwnyk and collaborators, covers a range of areas that have employed ultrasound to process food materials, such as extraction of plants, seeds, and fruit; the recycling of food waste; and the effect on the properties of meat and dairy products. Some discussion on scale-up processes is also included.

      In Chapter 11, Extraction of Bioactive Compounds From Olive Leaves Using Emerging Technologies, Cruz et al. discuss extraction techniques including microwave, supercritical fluid, superheated liquid, and ultrasound that are used to extract bioactive compounds from olive leaves, as well as their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.

      El-Salam and El-Shibiny, in Chapter 12, Separation of Bioactive Whey Proteins and Peptides, highlight the basic principles and application of the technologies used for the isolation of casein macropeptide, lactoferrin, and lactoperoxidase from cheese whey. Also, methods for the separation of bioactive peptides from whey protein hydrolysates are presented.

      Chapter 13, Phytochemicals: An Insight to Modern Extraction Technologies and Their Applications, prepared by Rao and Rathod, provides a holistic insight into the modern approaches for physicochemical extraction alongside conventional techniques, giving a balanced outline of the applications and latest developments of each technique.

      Chapter 14, prepared by Muhamad et al., Extraction Technologies and Solvents of Phytocompounds From Plant Materials: Physicochemical Characterization and Identification of Ingredients and Bioactive Compounds From Plant Extract Using Various Instrumentations, aims to review several physicochemical extraction techniques, including conventional and advanced techniques, such as solvent extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasonic-assisted extraction, aqueous extraction, enzymatic extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction. These physicochemical characterizations of ingredients and bioactive compounds using various instrumentations could provide informative and scientific reference for diverse potential uses of plant extracts, especially for nutraceuticals and functional food applications.

      Chan and collaborators in Chapter 15, An Energy-Based Approach to Scale Up Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Plant Bioactives, discuss the optimization and modeling techniques based on energy-based parameters that enable scale-up of microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) of plant-derived bioactive compounds. Energy-based parameters, namely absorbed power density (APD) and absorbed energy density (AED), are able to characterize the extraction kinetics of MAE in predicting the extraction profiles and the optimum conditions at various conditions, particularly at larger-scale operations. This chapter also discusses the applications of APD and AED in equipment design, operational flexibility, and adaptability for various types of plant extraction with the aim to commercialize MAE.

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Chapter 1

      Methods for Extractions of Value-Added Nutraceuticals From Lignocellulosic Wastes and Their Health Application

      Siddharth Vats    Shri Ram Swaroop Memorial University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

      Abstract

      Extraction, the term, is used for the separation of medicinally valuable phytochemicals, nutraceutical functional foods, fruit purees and powders, biochemicals, electrolyte blends, health-promoting agents, nutritive oils, antimicrobial products, bioactive compounds, commercially valuable food flavoring, and additive compounds of biochemical nature, proteins, nutritional supplements, personal care and cosmetic, drugs and pharmacophores from eukaryotic and prokaryotic cultured cells or from plants, animals, and microbes directly by using standard physical extraction procedures and solvents. The products obtained in these extracts are relatively impure solutions, semisolids, or dried powder for oral use. Various physical and chemical methods of extraction are employed individually or synergistically for the extraction of desired bioactive ingredients. For industrial scale, like for the use of biorefineries, mathematical modeling optimized extraction methods are more suitable because they make a process more cost effective and efficient. For creating a suitable optimized model of physicobiological parameters, statistical methodologies, such as response surface methodology (Box Benkhen Design, Central Composite Design) and artificial neural network (ANN), have been preferred because of their proven advantages. ANN and response surface methodology (RSM) combine mathematical and statistical techniques for analyzing problems, with several independent variables having a control on a dependent variable.

      Keywords

      extraction

      value-added products

      nutraceuticals

      phytochemicals

      1. Introduction

      Nature is the foremost and oldest inexhaustible source of chemotypes and pharmacophores (Mukherjee and Wahile, 2006). The 21st century has seen a wide and explosive surge in natural product chemistry because of new compounds with diversified structural and chemical properties. With the change in the drug discovery process, there is a need for the improvements in natural product research to maintain the cutting edge of alternative medicines (Mukherjee and Wahile, 2006). According to the International Environment Technology Centre’s (United Nations Energy Program) report, the types and the volume of biomass waste generated have increased because of intensive agricultural practices to meet the needs of growing populations. In most of the agricultural practicing countries, like India and China, the major chunk of lingocellulosic waste generated remain unutilized either are burned to make way for new crops or are allowed to rot, eventually causing harm to the environment by emitting methane and generating CO2, which causes climate change (DTIE, 2009). Obtaining value-added products from plants has gained momentum. But there is complete negligence toward forests wastes; these can also be the source of various value-added products (Vats et al., 2013). Similarly, a major share of forest waste also contributes to forest fires and other environmental changes. Forests are rich in diverse medicinal plants; the waste generated from them can be explored for extraction of medicinal valuable products, because the situations for the health care sector also have challenges from new emerging diseases. Stressful lifestyles, adulteration in the food, rising antibiotic resistance among microbes, all provide the right platform for the emergence of new global diseases. The area where we see a justifiable great scope for the natural health-care product is in metabolic diseases, immunosuppressants, and diseases caused by antibiotic resistant microbes, DNA damage, cellular injuries, and so on. Cancers and infectious diseases kill millions of people worldwide. Various reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidize different intracellular components and lead to cancer, aging, heart failure, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and so on. Alternative drugs are losing their edge against the metabolic diseases and infectious microbes with many being challenged by the resistant microbes. The rise in resistant infectious microbes and disadvantages associated with synthetic anticancerous drugs have put phytochemicals on top of the research list of microbiologists and oncologists. Providing economical anticancerous and antimicrobial drugs with negligible side effects is the only ground-level solution. The packaged food market is growing with an ever-increasing rate. The use of additives and preservatives like sodium benzoate (SB), sodium thiosulfates (ST), sodium nitrates (SN), oxalic acid (OA), sodium citrate (SC), and benzoic acids (BA), used on large scale. But it has been found that all major additives used for any purpose in food are also responsible for various health-related issues. The future for natural product-based drugs is bright as a wide range of terrestrial and marine plants and herbs found in extreme geographic and physical conditions are unexplored. Biomasses generated from trees, plants, and shrubs growing in extreme geographic conditions contain some special components with great medicinal values.

      1.1. Medicines and Present Scenario

      Cheap and better medicines, nutritious food, and chemical-free food preservation strategies are the most important basic necessities for mankind of the present and future centuries (Sun and Cheng, 2002). A diet rich in organic food, fruits, and vegetables may decrease the chances of deadly diseases like heart diseases, cancers (Boyer and Liu, 2004). Vegetables, fruit, and plant materials are rich sources of nonnutritive bioactive chemicals called phytochemicals, like flavonoids, alkaloids, cartenoids, phenolics, and other phytochemicals. Eating one apple each day keeps doctor away is also scientifically proven that there is an inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, oxidation of lipids, and lowering of blood cholesterol level by consumption of the same (Boyer and Liu, 2004). Epidemiological studies have also confirmed health benefits associated with phytochemicals. The traditional Indian medicine system Ayurveda utilized phytochemicals obtained from plants and herbs to impart health benefits among humans (Moon et al., 2010). Most of the economically leading nations of the world also lead the number of deaths due to cardiovascular diseases and cancers. More than 25% of total drugs available in the market are made up of plants or plant-derived substances (Ameen et al., 2011). In recent years plant-derived metabolites are analyzed and investigated on a large scale as a source of new drugs by considering the antibiotic resistance among microbes for conventional and presently available antibiotics (Ameen et al., 2011). Plants synthesize secondary metabolites as defensive molecules against predations and microbial attacks (Liu, 2004; Mallikharjuna et al., 2007). Chemoprevention and chemotherapy are two separate terms with completely different meanings. Some important issues that make them more complex are age and cancer types. Chemoprevention can be best for healthy people as it is best to prevent them for getting cancers but should be less toxic and free from side effects. Chemotherapy is a potent weapon against patients who already have tumors or cancers (Aggarwal et al., 2004).

      1.2. Main Classes of Phytochemicals and Their Sources

      There are various types of phytochemicals and they belong to many classes. Concentrations and quantities of different phytochemicals vary in different plants (Table 1.1).

      Table 1.1

      Main classes and source of phytochemicals.

      2. Phytochemicals and Health

      Since the beginning of human civilization diseases have affected humans and their livestocks. The only medicine they had was the food they ate. Plants and animal-based food was the main source for food and medicines. Today, due to pollution, contamination, and adulteration in food, stressful hectic work routines, busy lifestyles, and heavy dependence on packaged food have led to many diseases. India is one of seven hot spots in terms of biodiversity of flora and fauna. The land has provided habitat rich in medicinal plants and 30% of the world’s cattle, out of which 7500 plants species have proven medicinal values (Kirtikar and Basu 1918). Numerous studies have been published on the antimicrobial activities of plant extracts against different types of microbes (Dorman and Deans, 2000; Shan et al., 2007). Stems of Fadogia agrestis showed the presence of saponins, steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, anthraquinone, glycosides, and alkaloids. Extracts demonstrated antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, S. spp., Bacillus subtilis, and Escherichia coli (Ameen et al., 2011; Yakubu et al., 2005). According to the report US Cancer Statistics: 2007 Incidence and Mortality, published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, every year more than half a million Americans lose their lives to cancer and more than this to heart disease (Jemal et al., 2007). Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the United States of America after heart disease. Tables 1.2A and 1.2B show the major types of cancer affecting males and females in the USA.

      Table 1.2A

      Major types of cancers among men in America.

      Table 1.2B

      Major types of cancer among women in America.

      Humans have always searched for drugs to prevent diseases. Like a secular tradition, herbal plants have always been used by every culture and country for primary health care. The ultimate source of drugs is medicinal plants and herbs, which are abundant in nature. But what matters is that part of the plant should be extracted at the right time, the right season, and the right stage of its growth (Shahid-Ud-Daula and Basher, 2009). Pathogens and diseases have affected humans and livestocks since the beginning of time. Humans have always searched and needed drugs to prevent diseases. Like a secular tradition, herbal plants have always been used by every culture and country for primary health care. Antibiotics are losing their edge in the fight against diseases and pathogens. Many antibiotic resistance microbes like quilone and ciprofloxacin resistance Pseudomonas aeruginosa (QCPRA), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), penicillin-resistant S. aureus (PRSA), vancomycin resistant Enterococcus (VRE), pose a challenge to our well being. Many food-borne pathogens, such as E. coli, Salmonella, and Campylobacter, are responsible for diarrhea and gastroenteritis that have resistance to antibiotics. Sexually transmitted bacteria responsible for gonorrhea, penicillin-resistant Streptococci causative agent for pneumonia, microbes responsible for tuberculosis, influenza, HIV, and malaria all have become antibiotic-resistant (Haydel et al., 2008).

      2.1. Package Food and Health Issues

      Packaged foods have become part of our daily lives and there is a huge dependence on them (Mamur et al., 2012). To add shelf life, preventing food from spoiling and achieving desired color, taste, and texture, chemical additives and preservatives are added to the packaged food (Mamur et al., 2012). Additives and preservatives like SB, ST, SN, OA, SC, and BA, are used on a very large scale in packaged food. It has been confirmed from various studies that these food preservatives have done more harm to human health than serving any good (Gamze et al., 2014). Regular consumption of food additives above the acceptable daily intake (ADI) promote cancers, aging, asthma, ulcerative colitis, kidney stones, urinary problems, hypertension, and disturb normal metabolic reactions. Many metabolic reactions generate ROS and free radicals, neutralized by the body’s efficient self-defense mechanism to maintain cellular homeostasis (Halliwell and Gutteridge, 2007b). The presence of reactive species in excess causes oxidative damage to cellular biomolecules. DNA, proteins, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) present in membranes are the most important biomolecules of any cells. Any damage to them can lead to serious problems and diseases (Rajesh et al., 2013). Cell membranes play an important role in cell adhesions, cell signaling, ion conductivity, and cell potential. Any damage to cell membranes can lead to cell death (Pagán and Mackey, 2000). DNA stores the information that governs all the functions of somatic and germ cell lines. DNA during the division of the cells undergoes replication and this information is then translated into proteins, which are part of all kinds of biochemical and physiochemical reactions occurring intracellular or extracellular. Therefore, any kind of damage to DNA molecules can alter the normal reaction and fundamental process of the both somatic and germ line cells, which are the unit of life (structural and functional). And any kind of biomolecular or organelle damage due to exposure to a number of endogenous and exogenous agents over a period of time affects the normal functioning of the cells. The aim of this study is to analyze the protective effect of phytochemicals. As the body has its own defensive mechanism to neutralize ROS, but with the consumption of packaged food containing chemical additives, oxidative stress can not be lowered by the natural defense system of body (Droge, 2002). Antioxidants must be supplied exogenously. And the phytochemicals obtained from plants can be commercially exploited because of their defensive role in maintaining cellular homeostasis. SB helps stop the fermentation or acidification of foods and can be found in sodas and many fruit juices (Saad et al., 2005), and when get mixed with vitamin C, it can create benzene, a known carcinogen (Clauson et al., 2003). Preservatives like SNs and nitrites are used in meats (ham and bacon), and gives hot dogs their red coloring. The American Cancer Society recommends avoiding consumption of processed meats containing nitrites, because it is linked to asthma, nausea, vomiting, headaches, and cancer (Kilfoy et al., 2011). Preservative benzoic acid on the other hand is associated with damage to the nervous system, asthma, and increased hyperactivity in children (Clauson et al., 2003). BA is used in processed foods like cheeses, varied sauces, margarine, fruit juices, carbonated beverages, and meats. ST and sulfites are used to prevent fungal spoilage and browning of peeled fruits and vegetables and are responsible for causing allergic reactions (Vally et al., 2009). SC should be avoided by people suffering with kidney disease, heart disease, high blood pressure, a history of heart attack, urinary problems, swelling (edema), or chronic diarrhea (such as ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease) and should avoid the use of SC as it can increase the chances of all these mentioned diseases. OA is responsible for kidney stones in many patients. It is used in industry as a bleaching agent and for rust removal. In the body, OA can combine with calcium in the kidneys to form kidney stones in susceptible people. OA is poisonous when consumed in high quantities, so people with certain health conditions should avoid high oxalate foods.

      3. Phytochemicals and Health Benefits

      3.1. Alkaloids

      Alkaloids are plant products that have a great impact on the social, economic, and political matters for a long time. These are major players in the field of therapy and include agents like atropine, morphine, quinine, vincristine (Fazel et al., 2008). Researchers are working on Xylocarpus grantum root bark containing, alkaloid N-methyl-flindersine and many inorganic compounds like Na+, K+, Ca++, Cl–, and Mg++ in leaves. Jordan et al. (1991) found anticancerous effects of vinca alkaloids. They took five vinca alkaloids and studied inhibitory activity against a proliferation of cancer. The antiproliferative activity of vinca alkaloids was based on the observation of the inhibition of cell growth by arresting cells at metaphase even at the lowest effective concentration with almost nil microtubule depolymerization and spindle disorganization instead by altering the dynamics of tubulin at the end of spindle microtubules. Ergot alkaloids are one type of alkaloids that find clinical use for the treatment of complicated problems like uterine atonia, postpartum bleeding, sensile cerebral insufficiency, hypertension, migraine, and so on (Kren, 1997; Mukherjee and Menge, 2000). Ergot alkaloids are produced from fungus Claviceps purpurea. In the field of agriculture pure alkaloid standards are used to investigate the presence of alkaloid and glycoalkaloid in agricultural products like potatoes as these also cause acute toxicity. All those new varieties of potatoes to be commercialized first and have to be ensured to be free of acute toxicity of alkaloids. Two important sources of alkaloid for standards are glycoalkaloid alpha chaconine and alkaloid solanidine (Bushway et al., 1987). Another important bioactive alkaloid is tetrahydro-beta-carbolines, which are mainly present in the mammalian tissues, fluids, and brain (Herraiz and Galisteo, 2003), but nobody is sure about their biological origin. Some fruits and juices contains 1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid and 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid, generally in citrus fruits 1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline (mainly found in tomato juice, tomatoes, and kiwi) and 6-hydroxy-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline. All the fruits that contain these alkaloids are good sources of antioxidants and show good free radical scavenger activity. Piper retrofractum fruits are sources of piperidine alkaloids, namely piperoctadecalidine and pipereicosalidine (Wong et al., 1992). Purine alkaloids are one of the main phytochemicals and caffeine, theobromine and theeophyline are the main flag bearers of this category. Caffeine is most abundant in coffee, tea, and yerba; on the other hand, cocoa seeds are the most abundant source of theobromine. Purine alkaloids caffeine and theobromine from the fruits of tea Camellia sinensis L. were studied by Suzuki and Waller (1985). They found that caffein amounts vary with the growth and growing season till the complete ripening of fruits. Taste, color, and flavor of coffee and tea make them good and bad. Suzuki and Waller (1985) also quantified the purine alkaloid content in the fruit. Dry fruit’s pericarp contains the maximum with seed coat, fruit stalk, and the seed in decreasing level respectively.

      3.2. Anthocyanins

      Out of various phytochemicals being colorful anthocyanins are most attractive and widely recognized. These are most abundant in fruits and vegetables (Wang and Stoner, 2008). Anthocyanins are plants pigments that belong to the flavonoid group of phytochemicals. Main sources of anthocyanins are teas, wines, vegetables, nuts, olives, honey, cocoa, and cereals. Commercially, anthocyanins are produced from grapes, elderberry, red cabbage, roselle, and so on (Bridle et al., 1996). The red color of wines, which evolves on aging, is also because of anthocyanins present in the grapes skin (Ribereau, 1974). Anthocyanin absorbs light at 500 nm because of the presence of conjugated bonds in their structures and give purple, blue, and red colors to vegetables and fruits (Wang and Stoner, 2008). Anthocyanins are bioactive phytochemicals with strong antioxidant activity and free radical scavenging activities (Tsuda et al. 1997, 2004a,b). Anthocyanin’s rich mixture of flavonoids provide protection to DNA and reduce estrogen activity, inhibition of enzymes, and improve immunological responses by enhancing the production of cytokines, reducing inflammation and lipid peroxidations, and strengthening the membrane by decreasing the permeability of capillary and their fragility (Lila, 2004). Tsuda et al. (2004b), when mice were fed with a high fat diet with anthocyanins extracted from purple corn, found effective inhibition of the increase of adipose tissue and body weight gain. Lila (2004) found that biological activity of anthocyanin pigments present in the human body are either phytochemical dependent or almost never independent. Generally, anthocyanin and other flavonoid components or nonflavonoid components provide full benefit when they work synergistically. Plants that have a rich source of anthocyanin have a complex phytochemical cocktail and these are products, which are produced by the plants as attractive agents and in their defense from pathogens and predators. Anthocyanins are present in flowers, fruits, and vegetables and show very good oxygen radical absorbing capacity. Wang et al. (1997) determined antioxidant activity of 14 anthocyanins and found kuromanin had the highest antioxidant activity among them. Today anthocyanins are a hot topic for research because of health benefits. Anthocyanins act as nutraceuticals because of their antioxidant effects and are used in therapy because of their role in treating cardiovascular diseases, cancers, and even HIV-1 (Lila, 2004; Talavéra et al., 2006; Zafra-Stone et al., 2007). In vitro experiments have proved that anthocyanins are good antioxidant with beneficial effects in humans but the real potential can be achieved when researchers understand their in vivo bioavailability with functions. If researchers look at the industrial point of view, especially the wine industries where grapes and other fruits are used, which are good sources of anthocyanins, they are influenced by the phenomena of copigmentations.

      3.3. Cartenoids

      Color adds value to the food and it is the color of food that gives the first impression about its quality and taste. Color makes food more tempting and helps in fulfilling expectations. There are many reasons that are associated with the addition of color to food, like to compensate color lost during processing of food, support the already existing colors, to tackle color-based quality variations, and to add color to uncolored food (Mortensen, 2006). Carotenoids are one of the most important pigments and natural colorants. Carotenoids are lipid soluble and are generally yellow, orange, and red pigments found among all higher plants and in few animals (Mortensen, 2006). Carotenoids are classified in two categories; one is made up of only carbon and hydrogen, and other has carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen and are called carotenes and xanthophyls, respectively. European legislation has set guidelines that carotenes can be obtained from plants we eat and there is specifically mention of carrots, oils obtained from plants like from oil palm fruits, alfalfa, and some grasses. The main types of carotenes are alpha carotenes and beta carotene. Lycopenes is another important carotene. Lycopene’s concentration is highest in tomatoes, with 28–42 micrograms per gram, which increases up to 86 – 131 micrograms per gram of weight in juices and sauces (Rao et al., 1998). Lycopene is the precursor for the beta form of carotenes and generally found in the plants containing beta carotenes. Single lycopene molecules can neutralize oxygen molecules and one lycopene molecule can scavange more than one ROS because of the number of conjugated double bonds (Krinsky and Johnson, 2005). This makes lycopene a good candidate for chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic drugs. Lycopene has good antiprostate cancer activities based on antiproliferative and proapoptotic properties as this isomer gets accumulated within the prostate region (Krinsky and Johnson, 2005). Lutein is another common carotenoid and obtained from Aztec marigold. Annatto tree seeds are the source for the colorant annatto. Use of annatto is more restricted in the European Union than in the United States. Paprika obtained from fruits pod of capsicum annuum is a well-known spice and is used as a colorant more than as a spice. Paprika is the source of various pigments and, most importantly, one is capasnthin and is almost 50% of the total pigments present in the paprika (Minguez-Mosquera and Hornero-Mendez, 1993). Saffron is also an important source of carotenoids and whole stigma is added to the food for taste and color.

      3.4. Xanthophylls

      Xanthophylls are yellow pigments that are one of the important divisions of the carotenoid group. The word xanthophylls is made up of the Greek word xanthos, meaning yellow, and phyllon, meaning leaf. The major difference between xanthophylls and carotenes is that xanthophylls contain oxygen atoms in the form of a hydroxyl group or epoxides while carotenes are molecules with only hydrocarbons and no oxygen. Yellow corn contains various pigments and primarily xanthophylls and some amount of carotenes (Swallen, 1942). Xanthophylls are concentrated at leaves like all other carotenoids and modulate the light energy. Xanthophylls found in all other animals or humans or other dietary animals are only plant derived. The three main types of oxygenated carotenoids in human diets are lutein, zeaxanthin, and cryptoxanthanin and their concentration in the human blood is high. In algae and vascular plants xanthophylls pigments play various important structural, as well as functional roles (Niyogi et al., 1997). Xanthophylls are found in all photosynthetic eukaryotes in bound form generally with chlorophyll molecules and proteins present in the integral membranes.

      3.5. Coumestan

      Coumestan are derivatives of coumarin and forms the central core for a variety of natural compounds. Some of the phytochemicals also have oestrogenic properties and are termed as phytoestrogens and mainly belong to the flavonoids groups (Kuhnau, 1976). These are called phytoestrogen as they have same effect on the central nervous system of human as estrogen. Main sources of coumestans are split peas, pinto beans, lima beans, alfalfa, and clover sprouts. Coumstans are one of the three classes of falvonoids that are termed as phytoestrogens, namely coumestans, prenylated flavonoids, and isoflavones. Coumestans have physical and chemical properties similar to isoflavones (Humfrey, 1998). Phytoestrogens have nonsteroidal structures, which makes them resemble mammalian estrogens. They can bind to estrogen receptors (ER) in both agonists and antagonists for estrogen (Jenkins et al., 2002). According to Thompson et al. (2006), phytoestrogens like coumestan, lignans, and isoflavones may be potential candidates to treat cancers associated with hormones.

      3.6. Flavonoids

      Vegetables, berries, and fruits and beverages are good sources of flavonoids and are associated with reducing the risks of a number of diseases. Flavonoids have shown positive effects on the immune system both in vitro, as well as in vivo (Middleton and Kandaswami, 1992). Flavonoids are phytochemicals of low molecular weight, have three-ring structures, and are of various types based on the different substitutions (Middleton et al., 2000). Flavonoids have several important roles in plants as antimicrobials, antioxidant, attractors, light receptors, and many other biological activities (Pietta et al., 2000). The main possible mechanism is their antioxidant activity. Antioxidants evolved as an important part of natural defense mechanisms among living organisms (Jovanovic et al., 1994). These are the molecules that scavenge the free radical species and inhibit the chain reactions that can damage vital molecules of living organisms. Though they are very beneficial, one antioxidant molecule interacts with one free radical so they should be replenished to meet the constant challenge posed by various free radicals. Flavonoids have various biological activities. Today, flavonoid-based products are flushing in the market. For example, propolis is the material bees use to protect their hives. This propolis has various biological activities like antibacterial, antiviral, antiinflamatory, and also anesthetic properties. Of more than 150 components present in them, flavonoids are the major player (Chang et al., 2002). Animal and cellular studies confirm that flavonoids inhibit cancer proliferation. These studies are conducted with high concentrations of flavonoids, but will they help in the same way when tested on humans. Would humans be able to cope with the high concentration of flavonoid? These questions have to be answered. Intake of flavonols and flavones can reduce the chances of heart disease, like myocardial infarction and strokes that increase the phytochemical productivity employs the basic understanding of genes regulating and controlling the pathways responsible, and lead to the synthesis of these compounds in fruits and other vegetables. Biochemical and molecular techniques employability enhances the production of phytochemicals.

      3.7. Isoflavones

      Isoflavones are a subclass of flavonoinds and are scarcely distributed in nature. Soybeans are the main source of isoflavones and soy foods are consumed on a high level in Asian countries, mainly Pacific (Russo et al., 2010). Out of various isoflavones, genistein has the maximum percentage among leguminous plants and helps in fighting various kinds of cancers. Breast and prostate cancers among humans are the most common types. Genistein has a strong role as anticancerous biomolecules against breast and prostate cancers (Lampe et al., 2007). Genistein phytochemicals and their analogous molecules resemble estrogen hormones, molecular structure-wise and is the reason they are also called phytoestrogen. ERs, like ER alpha and ER beta, receive various estrogens, like hormones, like 17-beta estradiol E2, which by the use of these receptors, act on the estrogen dependent tissues, like the uterus, ovary, and breast. ER alpha is associated with the growth effects of estrogen and found mainly in the uterus and liver while ER beta have antiproliferative properties and are found mainly in the ovary (Russo et al., 2010). Genistein inhibits growth of most types of hormone dependant and independent cancer cells (Chang et al., 2009).

      3.8. Monoterpenes

      Monoterpenes are phytochemicals of C10 representation of terpenoid family. Gershenzon et al. (1989) studied biosynthesis and catabolism of monoterpenes. Russin et al. (1989) studied the effects of monoterpenoids in inhibition of mammary carcinogenesis in rats. In this study the authors focused on limonene and oxygenated [(−)-menthol] and nonoxygenated (rf-limonene) monocyclic forms, oxygenated (1,8-cineole) and nonoxygenated [(±)-a-pinene) bicyclic forms and oxygenated [(±)-linalool and nonoxygenated 03-myrcene] acyclic forms. Dietary feed of each of the monocyclic terpenes, d-limonene or (−)-menthol resulted in a significant inhibition of mammary carcinogenesis. Out of all of them menthol was more potent even to limonene. Monoterpens are also used as fumigating agents. Lee et al. (2003) found monoterpenoids in fumes form; they show antipest effects and can be used to kill pests and insects for several stored products. Concentrations of 50 μg/mL in air caused 100% mortality in rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae, the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, the sawtoothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, the housefly, Musca domestica, and the German cockroach, Blattella germanica, cineole, l-fenchone, and pulegone.

      3.9. Phytosterols

      Phytosterols are plant sterols. For a long time their biological role was underestimated in mammals. But in 1983 it was found that phytosterols are effective in treating patients with hypercholesterolimic (Bouic, 2001). In a clinical review written by scientist Bouic (2001), it was mentioned that phytosterols have immunological activity in animal models suffering from inflammation and colorectal and breast cancer in vivo and in vitro. Phytosterols are the main component of plant membranes and free phytosterols help in stabilizing phospholipid bilayers in plants as same as the role played by cholesterol in animal cells (Moreau et al., 2002). When consumed by humans phytosterols present in diets, they act as cholesterol-lowering agents (Moreau et al., 2002).

      3.10. Organosulphides

      Garlic is the most important source of organosulphides of various types (Srivastava et al., 1997). Srivastava et al. (1997) studied how organosulfides diallyl sulfide (DAS), diallyl disulfide (DADS), diallyl trisulfide (DATS), dipropyl sulfide (DPS), and dipropyl disulfide (DPDS) are effective against benzo(a)pyrene (BP)-induced cancer in mice by modulating enzymes involved in BP activation/inactivation pathways. Jakubikova and Sedlak (2005) also studied organosulfides and their mechanism for inducing cytotoxicity, apoptosis, arresting of cell cycle,

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