Barn Owl Conservation Handbook: A comprehensive guide for ecologists, surveyors, land managers and ornithologists

1 Introduction

1.1 Part One – The owls

1.1.1 Western Barn Owls Tyto alba alba

See Plate 1 Barn Owl portrait

Plate 2 Barn Owl foraging in flight by day

Plate 3 Barn Owl in flight at dusk silhouetted

With their characteristic heart-shaped face, Barn Owls Tyto alba are one of the most studied and best-known owl species in the world. Once considered the most common owls in Britain, they have suffered such a drastic decline in numbers that there were probably no more than 4,000 pairs left by the turn of the millennium (Toms, Crick & Shawyer 2000). Nevertheless, Barn Owls are still widely but thinly distributed across much of lowland Britain and, with the exception of urban areas and dense woodland, may forage over any habitat that supports small mammal populations.

Although not territorial, Barn Owls are highly faithful to their home range and to the roost and nest sites they use within it. This would typically be a vast area extending up to 5,000 hectares (ha), although during the nesting period only a small portion of this is used – perhaps about 350 ha. Within their range most Barn Owls use one nest site, several main roost sites and other occasional roost sites. Whilst some pairs roost together all year round, others seem to live quite separate lives and only come together to breed (see 2.4). They generally roost and breed in dry elevated spaces in buildings or tree cavities, but will make use of almost any structure or hole that meets their needs. Because of the loss of so many old farm buildings and hollow trees they are increasingly dependent on the availability of nestboxes (see Chapter 6).

Barn Owls usually breed once a year; most eggs are laid in April or May and the young fledge in July or August. However, there is a great deal of variation. In a good year, some pairs will breed twice or even three times and nesting has been recorded in every month of the year. The presence of a nest is often given away by the sound of the young calling for food; sometimes likened to ‘snoring’ it is a repeated ‘shshsh shshsh shshsh’, which may continue for many hours. The most noticeable call of the adult is a long drawn out shriek or screech that can sound either hoarse or tremulous. However, some individuals hardly ever screech, whilst others screech quite frequently, particularly in the spring. In spring or summer unpaired birds sometimes fly far and wide while screeching continuously (see 2.4).

Barn Owls have buff-coloured upper surfaces delicately marked with white and shades of grey. In most birds their distinctive heart-shaped face and under-parts are predominantly white. When seen in flight the overall impression is usually of a large pure-white bird. Foraging Barn Owls generally fly buoyantly back and forth, ‘quartering’ areas of rough grassland and other open prey-rich patches or strips. They may also hunt from fence posts or other fairly low perching places, usually less than 3 m above the ground. Although daylight hunting does occur, Barn Owls are mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, with peaks of activity around dusk and dawn. Their diet consists mainly of small mammals, particularly voles, mice and shrews, together with rats and the occasional bird or frog (Love 2009). Unlike Little Owls Athene noctua and Tawny Owls Strix aluco, Barn Owls do not eat worms and hardly ever eat insects. Their diet can vary considerably between sites and from year to year, depending on prey availability, but they are definitely specialist rather than generalist feeders and depend almost entirely on the availability of small mammals (see 2.1.4.2).

In a landscape with many isolated trees and copses, Barn Owl home ranges will contain numerous Tawny Owl territories; in mixed farming areas they are also likely to contain one or more pairs of Little Owls. In general, these species ignore each other. Direct competition for nest cavities is only likely to occur where there is a severe shortage of sites, as each species has a different cavity size preference. Although there is considerable overlap in their diet, direct competition over food resources is not a major problem, partly because Little Owls and Tawny Owls have a much more varied diet than Barn Owls, and partly because they are restricted to hunting from a perch. By hunting from the air Barn Owls are able to utilise parts of the landscape that perch-hunting owls cannot normally reach (see 2.1.3.1).

Most reports of Barn Owls received from the general public are of birds seen while driving at night. They are almost always described as ‘white’ because of the headlights and because the birds are usually in flight. Indeed, the front or underside of a Barn Owl sighted in any circumstances will almost always be described as ‘white’, though this is less likely to be the case if the bird is viewed from above, behind, or as a silhouette (see Plate 3).

1.1.2 Identifying owls and interpreting reports from the public

In order to identify Barn Owls correctly it is important to be able to recognise the other owls that may also be encountered. In addition, a good survey of any potential Barn Owl site or area will always include interviews with the people who live or work there in order to collect reports of owls they may have seen or heard (see 4.2.2). The ability to interpret the way people describe owl sounds and sightings is thus a very useful skill. Care will always be needed because words such as ‘big’ and ‘screech’ mean different things to different people and ‘white owls’ (Barn Owls) do not always look white. Furthermore, an owl sound reported as a ‘screech’ or ‘shriek’ may not always come from a Barn Owl (see 4.2.2).

The following species accounts provide an introduction to the four other owl species that are resident in Britain in order to:

enable the reader to differentiate between Barn Owls and other owls

summarise the extent to which other owl species may affect Barn Owls

explain the relevance of each owl species to Barn Owl surveys and conservation work

1.1.2.1 Little Owls Athene noctua

See Plate 4 Little Owl portrait

Little Owls are the only other owl species in Britain commonly referred to as ‘farmland birds’ and, like Barn Owls, they mainly roost and nest in tree hollows and farm buildings. It is therefore highly likely that anyone surveying for Barn Owls will come across Little Owls at some point. The sound of a Little Owl calling may also be reported as a ‘screech’ and so there is considerable potential for confusion with Barn Owls.

With an estimated c. 5,800–12,000 pairs (Toms, Crick & Shawyer 2000), there are more Little Owls than Barn Owls in Britain. However, they are less widely distributed and occur mainly in southern lowland Britain, extending as far north as southern Scotland and west to the Welsh borders. Like Barn Owls, Little Owls are birds of open country and they are mainly found in mixed farming areas (partly cultivated and partly grassland) with hedgerows, orchards, copses and also in parkland. Little Owls are often referred to as ‘locally common’ and it is not unusual for one area to support several pairs breeding in close proximity whilst an adjacent area has none. Little Owls are largely sedentary with the birds generally faithful to their nest sites, and to each other, as long as both partners survive.

The type of roost and nest sites they use can vary considerably between individual pairs. Sites offering a small dark cavity are generally preferred, especially if the cavity has tunnel-like access. Agricultural and domestic buildings, trees, quarries and cliff faces have all been recorded as roost/nest sites. Little Owls have even been found making use of subterranean sites such as rabbit warrens and tunnels in sand and gravel pits. Nestboxes of a specific design, which replicate the species’ nest cavity requirements, have been used successfully in many areas. Little Owls almost never nest on open ledges in buildings, in Barn Owl nestboxes, or in any other type of cavity with a large entrance hole and almost always choose a narrow entrance (about 70 mm across) leading to a small cavity.

The Little Owl nesting season is much more restricted than that of Barn Owls. Although both species lay their eggs in April or May, Little Owls rarely have a second brood and lost clutches are often not replaced. Even when occupied, Little Owl nests can be very difficult to pinpoint. The presence of a nest is often given away by the repeated calling of the nestlings but it can be very difficult to work out exactly where the sound is coming from. Whereas the call made by Barn Owl nestlings is a repeated and sometimes forceful ‘shshsh shshsh shshsh’, Little Owl nestlings generally utter a much less strident ‘ssssss ssssss ssssss’. Mikkola (1983: 127) describes it as a ‘continuous wheezing’.

Compared to Barn Owls or Tawny Owls, Little Owls are very small – roughly half the length, height and wingspan – and are very active during daylight. On an overhead wire or fence post a Little Owl appears as a dark grey/brown white-speckled ‘blob’ about the size of two small fists, roughly similar in size to a Song Thrush Turdus philomelos or a Common Blackbird Turdus merula. Their feathers are predominantly brown, grey and speckled with white, and lack the golden buff tones of a Barn Owl’s upperparts (see Plate 1).

Unlike Barn Owls they always hunt from a perch, typically going directly from a fence post to pick up a food item and returning with their distinctive undulating flight, although at night their flight may be more direct (Mikkola 1983). Adult Little Owl calls may be heard at any time of day or night and include a plaintive ‘kiew, kiew’ and a ‘wherrow, wherrow’ reminiscent of a small dog barking. Male territorial vocalisations start during late winter, often from a favourite perch, and can occur throughout the nesting season (March to June).

Little Owl diet is far more varied than the predominantly small mammal-rich diet of Barn Owls. In addition to rodents and shrews, prey often includes beetles, worms and other invertebrates. Small birds are an important supplement in the breeding season, as are frogs. Material evidence in the form of pellets is therefore quite different from Barn Owls. Little Owl pellets are approximately half the size at 20–40 mm long and 10–20 mm wide and frequently contain the shiny remains of beetle carapaces. They can very easily be confused with Common Kestrel pellets (see Plate 24). Little Owls are the only owl species known to intentionally include plant matter in their diet and consequently pellets may also contain grass and seeds.

There appears to be little or no interaction between Little Owls and Barn Owls. Records do exist of Barn Owls eating Little Owls (Mikkola 1983), but this is rare and there are plenty of examples of Little Owls and Barn Owls nesting successfully in close proximity to each other, even in the same building at the same time. There is virtually no competition for nest cavities because their requirements are very different. Although there is some overlap, their diets are very different and there is little direct competition for food.

In spite of the fact that Little Owls are very active in daylight, they are unlikely to be reported unless by people who observe birds that are nesting very close to where they live or work. To birdwatchers their undulating flight is quite distinctive, but to less interested people they are just another flying bird. Although Little Owls spend a lot of time on fence posts and telegraph wires, the casual observer is much more likely to notice one perched on a roof or perhaps a tree close to their house. Amongst the general public the term ‘little owl’ is often taken to mean an owl that is not yet fully grown. As a result, this species may often remain nameless or may be known by another name, such as ‘small owl’, ‘skritch owl’, or simply ‘the ones you see during the day’.

1.1.2.2 Tawny Owls Strix aluco

See Plate 5 Tawny Owl portrait and Plate 6 Tawny Owl in flight at night

Tawny Owls are by far the most common and most vocal of all British owl species and their calls ‘kewick kewick’ and ‘hooo hu huhuhuhooo’ are very familiar in Britain (twit twoo). Because they are relatively common and because they are the owls that most people hear, a very basic knowledge of Tawny Owls is absolutely essential for anyone carrying out a Barn Owl survey. Like Barn Owls, Tawny Owls are medium-sized birds but, unlike Barn Owls, they generally go unnoticed as they tend not to fly around in the open, are almost entirely nocturnal and are much darker in colour.

The UK population is estimated at approximately 19,000 breeding pairs (Burfield & Bommel 2004) and they are very widely distributed across England, Scotland and Wales but absent from all of Ireland. Tawny Owls are woodland birds that have adapted to live virtually anywhere there are trees: city parks, wooded gardens, farmland with only hedgerow trees or copses, parkland, and of course dense woodland and forestry. Whereas Barn Owls occupy a vast and undefended home range (up to 5,000 ha), by contrast Tawny Owls are highly territorial within their relatively small territories of 12–20 ha (Southern 1970). Simple arithmetic suggests that one Barn Owl home range (in an open landscape with lots of trees) could contain over 200 Tawny Owl territories!

The lives of Tawny Owls are very orientated towards trees. They generally hunt from tree branches, roost in trees and nest in trees, whereas Barn Owls are birds of open country and rarely venture into dense woodland. Tawny Owls are thought to roost regularly in a favoured tree, close to the trunk, in thick cover such as ivy, or in a similarly concealed position. Nests are often in tree hollows, but a deep, dry cavity is evidently not essential as they also make use of the old nests of other species such as Carrion Crows Corvus corone, Eurasian Magpies Pica pica, Eurasian Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus or Common Buzzards Buteo buteo (Mikkola 1983) or nest in the open fork of a tree trunk or side branch (see Fig. 1.1). More rarely, nests on cliff ledges have been recorded, as have more terrestrial locations, including amongst tree roots and in rabbit holes. The floor area of a typical nest cavity is remarkably small when compared to a typical Barn Owl nest, sometimes with only just enough room for the female to sit on her eggs. As Tawny Owls tend to have only two or three young which leave the nest long before they are full-grown, large cavities are not needed. Smaller cavities may also be easier to defend. The floor size of a typical Tawny Owl nestbox is only 20 × 20 cm.

Fig 1.1 The tail of an incubating Tawny Owl is just visible protruding from a branch on the side of this Beech trunk. Its presence was discovered when a walker found a newly hatched owlet (alive) on the ground below. Tawny Owls also nest on old crow’s nests as well as safer sites such as tree cavities. © Barn Owl Trust. Photographer David Ramsden.

In the course of well over twenty years fieldwork, involving many thousands of visits to potential Barn Owl sites while searching for signs of occupation and checking boxes, Barn Owl Trust staff have come across only two cases of a Tawny Owl nesting in a Barn Owl nestbox. The species’ clear preference for trees is also demonstrated by the fact that there is only one record of Tawny Owls nesting in a bale stack and only a few records of them roosting in farm buildings. Although reports of Tawny Owls trapped in chimneys are received several times a year, it is clear that the vast majority of Tawny Owls live in trees.

Breeding behaviour commences around mid-winter with territorial vocalisations by the male (often ‘hooo hu huhuhuhooo’), followed by duetting with the female (usually ‘kewick kewick’), and this becomes progressively more centred around the nest site as spring approaches. Tawny Owls are an early-nesting species, with eggs laid typically in late February to early April and hatching about a month later. Tawny Owls rarely lay more than three or four eggs (maximum = six, mean = three) and almost never breed twice in a year. Food begging calls are similar to those made by Barn Owl nestlings, but somewhat higher and thinner – more of a ‘tssssp tssssp tssssp’ than a ‘shshsh shshsh shshsh’. Unlike Barn Owls, Tawny Owl young typically leave the nest several weeks before fledging and go through a phase known as branching (climbing/jumping amongst tree branches) during which they are often discovered on the ground (see Chapter 9). The young remain dependent on their parents for up to three months after fledging. A secondary peak in vocalisation occurs in early autumn as juveniles disperse and attempt to establish their own territories.

Tawny Owls are slightly bigger and have a less delicate, much more robust-looking appearance than Barn Owls. However, when at roost during the day, they often lose their well-rounded shape and look more like a broken-off bare tree branch, not much wider than a person’s forearm (approx. 75–90 mm). In flight both species can look much bigger, but, unlike Barn Owls, Tawny Owls virtually always look dark, even when flying in daylight. However, Tawny Owls do come in two distinct colour types – predominantly dark brown, and predominantly grey – and in bright car headlights a pale grey Tawny could be confused with a Barn Owl. When viewing these medium-sized owls in flight, one way to tell them apart is that a Tawny Owl will most often fly directly either to or from a tree (simply commuting between perches), whereas a Barn Owl is more likely to fly repeatedly back and forth (hunting from the air) or go to or come from a building.

Generally speaking, there is no reason to think that Tawny Owls and Barn Owls compete with each other, either for food resources or for roosting or nesting places. The idea that Tawny Owls have had a negative impact on Barn Owls at population level is therefore without foundation. Whereas Barn Owls are specialist feeders, Tawny Owl diet is much more varied. They take a lot of Wood Mice Apodemus sylvaticus, Bank Voles Clethrionomys glareolus, small birds, worms and beetles, and will also take young European Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus, European Moles Talpa europaea, Common Frogs Rana temporaria, and even fish. Where trees adjoin prey-rich grassland Tawny Owls will take Field Voles Microtus agrestis (which are the main prey of Barn Owls) but, overall, Barn Owl and Tawny Owl diets have a low similarity index (Mikkola 1983). There are occasional reports of the two species apparently competing over the use of a particular nesting cavity. In such cases Tawny Owls are likely to be the victors, as they generally nest much earlier in the spring than Barn Owls. Nevertheless, direct competition for nest sites is unlikely to be commonplace as Tawny Owls can nest in such a wide variety of places, including the old nests of extremely common birds. Encounters between owls of differing species and occasional animosity are bound to be recorded (Bunn, Warburton & Wilson 1982); it is even possible that food piracy may occur and there is at least one record of a Barn Owl apparently being killed by a Tawny Owl (Mikkola 1983). However, the fact that these species have simultaneously occupied the same areas and co-existed (survived and nested successfully) for thousands of years, suggests that such encounters have little or no impact on most individuals and no impact at all at population level.

When receiving reports of owls from the public it is essential to bear in mind that the vast majority of owls heard in Britain are Tawny Owls. The ‘twit-twoo’ call is really well known and may even be synonymous with the word ‘owl’ for many people (see 4.2.2). Although Tawny Owls are less often seen than other species, drivers at night may occasionally observe one perched in a roadside tree or standing on the road surface. Nestling or fledgling Tawny Owls are quite commonly picked up by members of the public walking in wooded areas, usually in the mistaken belief that they have been abandoned (see Chapter 9). Owl surveyors checking potential Tawny Owl nests, or anyone returning a nestling to a nest, should be aware that Tawny Owls can be very defensive and have been known to fly at intruders even during daylight and strike the head with their talons. However, such attacks are only likely to occur close to the nest between February and May. Fortunately, wild Barn Owls never intentionally fly at people!

1.1.2.3 Long-eared Owls Asio otus

See Plate 7 Long-eared Owl portrait

As an in-depth knowledge of Long-eared Owls is not usually required in order to carry out a Barn Owl survey or do Barn Owl conservation work, we shall present only a short summary of the species here.

Long-eared Owls are medium-sized birds up to 300 g in weight, with a body length of up to 35 cm and a wingspan of approximately 95 cm. They are generally mottled-brown with orange/black eyes and prominent ‘ear tufts’, though this feathering is for display and has nothing to do with their sense of hearing. They are thinly distributed across Britain, with slightly higher numbers in the east of England, and there appear to be two distinct populations of Long-eared Owls in Britain, one resident and one migratory. Resident bird numbers are augmented in autumn by the arrival of migrants, mainly from Scandinavia and eastern Europe (Wernham et al. 2002). The migrants arrive anytime between July and December and leave between February and June.

Long-eared Owls are very much a woodland edge species. Resident individuals are usually found where the edge of dense woodland, often coniferous or mixed, meets an open habitat supporting large numbers of small mammals (generally open scrub, rough grassland or moorland). They have also been recorded residing away from woodland, for example, in a very overgrown hedge bordering rough grassland in Cambridgeshire (C. Sperring, personal communication). These factors, combined with their dark colouration and nocturnal habit, make it likely that the species is significantly under-recorded. It is estimated that there are between 1,100 and 3,600 breeding pairs of Long-eared Owls in Britain (Baker et al. 2006). Like Tawny Owls, they often use the old nests of birds such as Carrion Crows, typically situated high up (average 6.7 m) in conifers (Glue 1977). Long-eared Owls do not nest in buildings.

In central and eastern Europe, communal winter roosting in urban trees is commonplace, often involving up to 100 birds; over 700 birds were recorded in a single winter roost in Serbia (M. Ruzic, personal communication). In Britain, small groups of wintering Long-eared Owls or single birds may be spotted during the daytime, roosting in quite exposed positions in leafless trees or shrubs in rural locations. There is no evidence that wintering migrants roost with British resident birds. However some interaction between residents and migrants would be expected and there is still much to learn.

Long-eared Owl diet consists of approximately 50% Field Voles and is thus very similar to that of Barn Owls. However, in times of food shortage, Long-eared Owls tend to eat more birds, whereas Barn Owls take more shrews (Mikkola 1983). Long-eared Owl pellets average approximately 30–50 mm by 10–20 mm (generally thinner than Barn Owl or Tawny Owl pellets) and are pale or dark grey in colour. The proportion of bone in the pellets is less, because Long-eared Owls are much more capable of digesting bone than Barn Owls.

Long-eared Owl calls are very rarely heard or reported. The male Long-eared Owl’s call is a very soft ‘hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo’, repeated every few seconds – very different from anything uttered by a Barn Owl. The food begging calls of the young are widely described as ‘like a squeaky gate’ (completely unlike Barn Owl young) and are repeated continuously throughout the night. The vast majority of people in lowland farmland in Britain are most unlikely ever to see or hear a Long-eared Owl.

1.1.2.4 Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus

See Plate 8 Short-eared Owl portrait

Plate 9 Short-eared Owl in flight by day

As an in-depth knowledge of Short-eared Owls is not usually required in order to carry out a Barn Owl survey or do Barn Owl conservation work, we shall present only a short summary of the species here.

Although similar in size to Long-eared Owls, Short-eared Owls tend to be slightly heavier and with a slightly longer winger span. Both species are similar in colour (mottled brown/buff) but Short-eared Owls have yellow/black eyes. As their name suggests, the ear tufts are much smaller than those of Long-eared Owls and often not very obvious. Short-eared Owls are both diurnal and nocturnal and, like Barn Owls, they are birds of open countryside, hunting small mammals in rough grassland and frequently marshier habitat, including reed beds and wet upland areas. Because of their habit of daytime hunting in open habitats, Short-eared Owls are much more frequently seen than Long-eared Owls.

Britain’s resident Short-eared Owls generally breed in uplands, typically on grass-heather moorland and young tree plantations and occasionally on coastal marshland in southeast England. Population estimates range from approximately 1,000 to 3,500 breeding pairs (Gibbons, Read & Chapman 1993). During winter, birds at high altitude typically move to lower ground or coastal sites where communal roosting of up to a dozen birds has been recorded. As well as seasonal movements within Britain, many Short-eared Owls are true migrants. In spring some birds move from Britain to Scandinavia, whilst others arrive from France and Spain and then return in the autumn. Unlike Long-eared Owls, there appears to be no separation between visiting birds and the resident population. Short-eared Owls are considered to be highly nomadic and the number of birds in one area at any given time is closely linked to prey availability.

When seen in flight, Barn Owls and Short-eared Owls have apparently been mistaken for each other, even by experienced birdwatchers on occasion. This confusion may simply be the result of seeing a buff-coloured owl using a similar foraging technique to a Barn Owl, over similar foraging habitat. However, identification problems should be minimised by obtaining better views, as Barn Owls are smaller in size and lack the dark carpal patches present on the upper and, to a lesser extent, the lower surfaces of the Short-eared Owls’ wings.

Like Barn Owls, Short-eared Owls are very much small-mammal specialists, with a diet consisting mainly of Field Voles (>80%), but also including other small mammals and occasional bird species. They have also been recorded eating Rabbits (Glue 1977), which Barn Owls almost never eat. Direct competition for prey between species is limited by the fact that the Short-eared Owls are only likely to be present when voles are plentiful. Once vole abundance starts to decline, the ‘Shorties’ will most likely move on, whereas Barn Owls will stay and transfer to other small mammal prey if necessary. On average, pellets range from 45–50 mm by 20–25 mm and have significant seasonal variation. For example, they are almost twice the size in spring and autumn as in summer and winter. They are dark grey in colour and contain fur, feathers and bones. Although superficially similar, Barn Owl pellets are somewhat larger on average and characteristically black when fresh. Whereas most Barn Owl pellets are found in buildings, Short-eared Owls virtually never enter buildings and so their pellets are very unlikely to be found indoors.

Unlike all the other owls described here, Short-eared Owls are highly terrestrial, generally roosting and nesting directly on the ground. Food begging calls by the young are rarely uttered but resemble a long, high, thin ‘pssss-sip’. Adults are generally quiet but males can utter a low pitched hollow ‘boo-boo-boo-boo-boo’ in flight, with females answering from the ground with a harsh ‘ree-yow’. A nesting pair will defend a temporary territory (the size of which is often related to food availability) but birds from closely spaced nests may cooperate in defensive activity. The vast majority of people in lowland farmland in Britain are most unlikely ever to see or hear a Short-eared Owl.

1.2 Part Two – The British Barn Owl population

1.2.1 Evidence of Barn Owl decline in Britain

As the first reliable survey of Barn Owls in Britain was not carried out until the late 1990s, most information on the historical decline of the species remains anecdotal. However, the sheer volume of such anecdotal reports is convincing; it seems that nearly every elderly farmer has childhood memories of seeing broods of young Barn Owls. Latham’s General Synopsis of Birds (1781) and MacGillivray’s History of British Birds (1840) both support the view that Barn Owls were the most common owl in Britain – even more common than Tawny Owls (see also Holloway 1996). Blamed largely on persecution, the early decline of the species prompted the first national Barn Owl survey, which produced an estimate of 12,000 breeding pairs in England and Wales (Blaker 1933). The second national survey (Shawyer 1987) produced a population estimate of 3,778 pairs in England and Wales and 640 pairs in Scotland. However, these estimates are not considered to be ‘satisfactory quantitative information’ (Percival 1992) and are unable to ‘stand up to critical scrutiny’ (Taylor 1994). For a full account, see Toms, Crick & Shawyer 2000.

Project Barn Owl, initiated by the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) and the Hawk and Owl Trust (HOT) in 1995, was specifically designed to produce a population estimate for the UK and its regions, using replicable methods. An estimated 11,000 hours of volunteer time were deployed and breeding was confirmed in only 9% of the 891 tetrads (2 × 2 km squares) that were surveyed (Toms, Crick & Shawyer 2000). UK population estimates for 1995–1997 varied between 2,830 and 3,967 pairs (Toms, Crick & Shawyer 2000). As there are roughly 300,000 farms in Britain (http://www.ukagriculture.com/uk_farming.cfm) and if we assume that there are 4,000 pairs of Barn Owls (Toms, Crick & Shawyer 2000), it could be estimated that only one farm in seventy-five has nesting Barn Owls at the present time.

1.2.2 Reasons for Barn Owl decline in Britain

An entire publication could easily be devoted to this vast and complex subject. Numerous factors have contributed to the decline of the species, many of which are dealt with elsewhere in the book (e.g. road deaths in 7.3.3), together with suggestions to resolve them. Here we shall present a brief guide under four broad headings.

1.2.2.1 Reduction in food supply

From the mid nineteenth and throughout the twentieth centuries, increasing agricultural intensity resulted in the loss of prey-rich habitats. Specific changes included the loss of unimproved pasture, an increase in stocking rates, the switch from hay-making to silage production, the loss of rough field margins and hedgerows, the transfer from spring sown to autumn sown cereals and changes in grain storage (Chamberlain et al. 2000). The loss of unimproved and rough grassland has been estimated as 92% (Fuller 1987) and hedgerow loss as 23% (Haines-Young et al. 2000). As a result, the amount of Barn Owl prey (mainly voles, shrews, mice and rats) on farmland has been greatly reduced and this is closely associated with reduced nesting success and an increase in Barn Owl mortality (Taylor 1994). Urbanisation and other developments have also resulted in habitat loss.

See Plate 10 An aerial view showing the widespread loss of hedgerows and pasture

It has been suggested that loss of ‘habitat continuity’ was one of the most significant causes of Barn Owl decline throughout Britain: where corridors of prey rich habitat (rough grassland) become discontinuous, juvenile dispersal is inhibited and Barn Owls are distributed among ‘isolated breeding colonies’ (Shawyer 1987). Fragmentation is indeed a problem for any organisms with very limited dispersal potential. However, Barn Owls can easily cover great distances whilst exploring and commuting within their home ranges of <5,000 ha, and it is not uncommon for individuals to move more than 6 km in just 10 minutes. Barn Owls show no reluctance to fly across unsuitable habitats (see 2.1.3) and there is no evidence that juveniles disperse along linear habitat features (see 2.4.8). The median juvenile dispersal distance is 12 km and movements across the English Channel and the North Sea are well known (Wernham et al. 2002).

1.2.2.2 Loss of roost and nest sites

As their name suggests, Barn Owls are closely associated with old barns. Research has shown that 48% of traditional farm buildings contain a potential nesting place and 75% provide a potential roosting place (Ramsden 1995). If one were to design the perfect roost/nest site for Barn Owls it would very closely resemble a typical old barn, affording complete shelter from rain and wind, with wide flat wall-tops for egg laying, wooden roof beams as roost perches, a stack of bales to provide hiding places, an alternative nest place, winter warmth and a resident mouse or rat population. Changes in agricultural practices have resulted in the widespread redundancy of traditional farm buildings, most of which have been lost to decay, unsympathetically converted or replaced by unsuitable modern farm buildings. Historically, large dry cavities in trees were the second most frequent Barn Owl site-type used. Many hollow trees have also disappeared from the countryside as a result of hedgerow destruction and Dutch Elm disease (Osbourne 1982; Martin 2008).

Fig 1.2 The loss of traditional agricultural buildings like this two-storey barn complex is a factor in Barn Owl decline. © Barn Owl Trust. Photographer David Ramsden.

To the untrained eye there may appear to be plenty of potential roost/nest sites in the countryside, but closer inspection will reveal that the vast majority of trees do not have a large dry hollow, only 3.7% of modern farm buildings are potential nest sites and less than half of the few remaining old barns are ideal (Ramsden 1995). Even in areas where apparently suitable potential nest/roost sites are abundant, the loss of an occupied site has been shown to have a disproportionately large negative effect on local Barn Owl distribution (Ramsden 1998). For further information, see Chapters 2 and 8.

1.2.2.3 An increase in man-made hazards

Around half of all reported Barn Owl deaths are road casualties (Newton, Wyllie & Dale 1997) and the vast majority of these are on trunk roads (primarily motorways and dual carriageways) rather than minor roads (Ramsden 2003). Since 1959, the total length of motorway and dual carriageway in Britain has increased from zero to over 9,000 km. Road mortality has also been suggested as a cause of Barn Owl decline in various other parts of Europe (Illner 1992; De Bruijn 1994; Ramsden 2003). Most of the owls killed on trunk roads are juveniles (Massemin et al. 1998; Shawyer & Dixon 1999) and juvenile survival rate has been shown to exert more influence on total population size than any other life-cycle parameter (Percival 1990). For further information, see 7.3.3.11.

Fig 1.3 It is a sad fact that about a quarter of all the young Barn Owls produced in a typical year are killed on Britain’s trunk road network before reaching one year old (see 7.3.3). © Barn Owl Trust. Photographer David Ramsden.

The majority of farms use rat and mouse poisons (rodenticides) and their increasing use and toxicity is a cause of great concern. Research shows that the proportion of Barn Owls with detectable levels of one or more rodenticides rose from 5% in 1983–84 to 53% in 2003 (Newton et al. 1999; Shore et al. 2005). Individual Barn Owls are also known to have died after eating poisoned rodents (Newton et al. 1999; Walker et al. 2007). It is highly probable that such deaths are under-recorded, as reported recoveries are biased towards birds that die in conspicuousconspicuous places (Illner 1992). The effects of a sub-lethal dose of rodenticide are largely unknown. Currently, 89% of Barn Owls have detectable levels of rodenticide in their bodies (Walker et al. 2010c) and if this were having any effect on their behaviour or physical capabilities, then the implications would be considerable. For further information, see 7.3.1.

Fig 1.4 Neosorexa Ratpacks containing the highly toxic rodenticide difenacoum are commonly incorporated into bale stacks where they cannot be inspected nor removed at the end of treatment. 89% of Barn Owls analysed contain this type of poison (see 7.3.1). © Barn Owl Trust. Photographer David Ramsden.

Evidence suggests that organochlorine compounds used in agricultural pesticides caused a decline in Barn Owl numbers in parts of eastern England during the 1940s, 50s and 60s and that numbers recovered following their withdrawal in the 1970s (Percival 1990). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which can cause behavioural and hormonal changes in birds, have also been detected in Barn Owls (Cooke, Bell & Haas 1982) but the extent to which the behaviour of wild Barn Owls may be affected is unknown.

There are a variety of other man-made hazards that are known to injure and/or kill Barn Owls. For further information, see 7.3.

1.2.2.4 Other reasons for Barn Owl decline

The BTO tested the idea that the long-term decline of Barn Owls was predominantly the result of deterioration in the weather, particularly colder winters between 1940 and 1980. The results showed that winter rainfall and low spring temperatures did reduce the survival rate of adult Barn Owls to some extent, and that wet summers and cold winters reduced the survival rate of juveniles. However, much of the variation in owl survival was not accounted for by weather and so other factors must have also been important (Percival 1990, 1991). The results also showed that the weather had very little overall effect on nesting success (Percival 1991).

Following detailed monitoring of Barn Owls and prey populations over a 14-year period, Iain Taylor concluded that Barn Owl population size is determined mainly by prey availability, rather than the severity of winter weather, and that annual fluctuations in prey numbers had nothing to do with winter weather. Barn Owl numbers were indeed reduced by very severe winters, but the effect was short-lived (Taylor 1992). Overall, it is difficult to quantify the relative importance of the weather as a direct cause of Barn Owl decline, but it is almost certainly much less important than a decline in prey abundance (Taylor 1994).

The BTO also investigated the suggestion that Barn Owl decline was due to an increase in Tawny Owl numbers and the resulting competition for resources, principally nest sites. Following an extensive investigation into the population trends of both species, the idea was dismissed (Percival 1991). The reader should bear in mind that most Barn Owl home ranges (c.350–5,000 ha) will contain numerous Tawny Owl territories (c.12–30 ha) and that these species have co-existed for millions of years (see 1.1.2.2).

1.2.3 Distribution of Barn Owls in the UK

Barn Owls can occur anywhere in the UK from John O’ Groats to Land’s End and individuals even land on ships and rigs far out to sea. Although resident Barn Owls are generally absent from urban areas, there have been reports of sightings from Richmond Park in London and several other city parks and urban edge sites. Barn Owls generally occur in rural landscapes with open habitats that support small mammals. They are not woodland birds. In an investigation based on 421 nest sites spread across a landscape that went from sea level to 300 m, there was no correlation between altitude and Barn Owl distribution (Welch 2004). Over 300 m above sea level, the chances of finding a Barn Owl rapidly decrease with altitude and all available distribution maps show a lack of Barn Owl records in mountainous areas (Blaker 1933; Sharrock 1976; Shawyer 1987; Gibbons et al. 1993; Eaton et al. 2009b). However, Barn Owls can survive in upland areas provided that their basic requirements are met.

Decisions on whether or not Barn Owls are likely to occur, and whether or not it is worth encouraging them, should not be entirely based on distribution maps and care is needed in their interpretation. National distribution maps are usually based on unconfirmed records reported by a wide variety of contributors, rather than on critically examined data arising from systematic fieldwork (see Fig 1.5). ‘Empty’ map squares give the impression that the species is absent but may simply mean that they have not been recorded, or, that some data were not given to the mapmakers. Relative abundance between areas, as indicated by distribution maps, is equally subject to local and regional variation in recording effort and data submission. Areas that appear to show above-average abundance may simply be a reflection of the work carried out by a particularly active recording group (see Figs 1.6 and 1.7). A block of ‘filled-in’ map squares can give the impression that Barn Owls are abundant when, in fact, only one record of breeding is required for the largest symbol to appear in each square and one nest per 10 × 10 km square represents an extremely low population density.

Fig 1.5 The breeding season distribution of Barn Owls in Britain and Ireland as reported to the BTO during the Bird Atlas 2007–11 project. This provisional BTO/Birdwatch Ireland/Scottish Ornithologists Club Bird Atlas map shows the distribution after three of the four years of fieldwork. Map courtesy of the BTO © 2011.

From the point of view of surveyors or developers, the possible presence of Barn Owls must be taken into account virtually everywhere, the only exceptions being inner-city areas and high mountains (see Chapter 4). From a conservation point of view it is more useful to look at the distribution of suitable landscape rather than species distribution. Maps showing the suitability of every 1 km square in England, Scotland and Wales are available at www.barnowltrust.org.uk

See Plate 11 A map of NE England showing the suitability for Barn Owls of each 1 km square

Fig 1.6 The breeding season distribution of Barn Owls in SW England as reported to the Bird Atlas 2007–11 project INCLUDING Barn Owl data provided to the BTO by the Barn Owl Trust in memory of John Woodland (BTO regional rep for Devon 1993 to 2008). Map courtesy of the BTO © 2011.

Fig 1.7 The breeding season distribution of Barn Owls in SW England as reported to the Bird Atlas 2007–11 project EXCLUDING all data from the Barn Owl Trust. Note the differences between Figs 1.6 and 1.7. When attempting to gauge a species’ presence or absence in any area, distribution maps must always be viewed with caution. Geographical variations in recording effort and the provision or non-provision of data from local or regional recording groups can make a huge difference to a species’ apparent distribution. Map courtesy of the BTO © 2011.

Fig 1.8 Barn Owl distribution in Devon and Cornwall as recorded during the 2003 Devon Barn Owl Survey and the 2004 Cornwall Barn Owl Survey carried out by the Barn Owl Trust with assistance from both the Devon and Cornwall Bird Watching and Preservation Societies. Unlike the BTO Atlas maps, those produced by local and regional recorders are usually published at tetrad level (showing each 2 × 2 km square). This finer resolution is much more useful when investigating local species distribution. © Barn Owl Trust.

1.2.4 Monitoring British Barn Owls

Much of the information that is available on Barn Owls is the product of ‘population monitoring’. Raw data are collected mainly by volunteers who annually visit sites dotted all over the countryside to record nest contents and, in some cases, to check individual birds. Before taking conservation action or carrying out a site search, it is important to realise that someone may already be monitoring the Barn Owl population in that area. It is fairly likely that the site in question is being checked every year and unnecessary repeat visits should obviously be avoided. Monitoring may simply involve landowners ‘keeping an eye’ on the site or they may have granted access permission to someone else. This could be a local owl enthusiast/group or perhaps an independent bird recorder who may, or may not, be linked to the BTO. When seeking landowner permission, always ask if someone else already visits the site(s).

The Barn Owl Monitoring Programme (BOMP), led by the BTO, was set up in 2000 with the aim of ‘monitoring Barn Owl populations through standardised recording of nesting rates, breeding performance and survival at a set of Barn Owl sites broadly representative of the distribution of the Barn Owl in Britain’ (Leech, Crick & Shawyer 2005). In a typical year around 500 nests are visited, which means that the BOMP is the largest single-species monitoring programme ever carried out in the UK. However, its coverage is far from even, with a strong bias towards eastern and central England, very few sites in the southwest and Wales and none north of the Scottish borders. The BTO also monitors Barn Owls through its Nest Record Scheme which has gathered similar information to BOMP since 1944.

Fig 1.9 Barn Owl Trust staff checking potential Barn Owl sites in an isolated little valley. Before searching sites, Barn Owl survey workers should ask the landowner if they are already being monitored. © Barn Owl Trust. Photographer David Ramsden.

Fig 1.10 A BTO ring being fitted to an adult Barn Owl. The subsequent reporting of rings provides a wealth of information that facilitates research and conservation. © Simon Thurgood.

Many hundreds of Barn Owl nest sites are visited each year simply for the purpose of bird ringing (also coordinated by the BTO). By 2008 over 77,981 Barn Owls had been ringed in Britain since the scheme started back in 1909, and approximately 7,000 are now ringed annually; of all these birds, about 800 are subsequently found and reported every year (Coiffait et al. 2009). Over a period of 23 years one of the authors (DR) has personally found a total of 108 dead Barn Owls, of which 30% were BTO ringed. With about 3,500 pairs producing roughly 9,100 young per year (see 7.3.3.1) and 7,000 birds ringed annually (most of which are nestlings), it is entirely possible that half of the entire Barn Owl population of Britain is BTO ringed. Nest monitoring and ringing, along with other studies such as colour-ringing and radio tagging, have produced a wealth of information on Barn Owls that has resulted in a much greater knowledge of the behaviour and population dynamics of the species.

Fig 1.11 Beautiful portrait of a BTO-ringed Barn Owl by Nick Sampford. © Nick Sampford.

Many of the independent groups/individuals who monitor local Barn Owl populations, often through the regular checking of nestboxes, can be contacted via the Barn Owl Trust, the HOT or the BTO (see Appendix 1 Contacts).

1.3 Part Three – Barn Owl conservation in the UK

In spite of many adverse factors, Barn Owls in Britain are just about holding their own, even though there are only a few pairs left in some counties and only about 4,000 pairs in total throughout the country. Wherever populations are very thinly distributed (e.g. one pair per 10 km square) with birds absent from vast tracts of land, the dire need for protection and pro-active conservation is obvious. It can also be argued that those areas where Barn Owl abundance is greatest (more than ten pairs per 10 km square) are the most important for the species and must be pro-actively protected. In reality, at a national scale, the idea of directing conservation effort to only one or two specific areas is clearly inadequate. It is an inescapable fact that widely distributed species need widely distributed conservation action.

1.3.1 Increasing Barn Owls’ food supply

At the national level, the single most important conservation measure that can be taken to improve the lot of Barn Owls is to increase their food supply, as this is the main factor controlling their population level (Taylor 1994). Very little land is managed primarily for small mammals, which simply ‘make do’ with whatever habitat is left for them after all other land management objectives have been met. The first requirement for increasing small mammal numbers is an awareness of their importance amongst farmers and other land managers. Luckily, Barn Owls are a popular species, and the idea of creating prey-rich habitat for Barn Owls has more appeal than the idea of habitat creation for endangered invertebrate species, for example. Fortunately for those other species, the habitat created for Barn Owls can benefit a huge range of biodiversity (wildflowers, butterflies etc.), particularly those species that feed on invertebrates and small mammals.

In 2001 the Barn Owl Trust obtained 10 ha of species-poor intensively grazed sheep pasture and its conversion into perfect vole habitat has resulted in measurable increases in a vast range of flora and fauna (see 5.5). Following a reduction in grazing, and without any artificial introductions, numerous species have naturally colonised the site and many others have increased in numbers. For example, the number of Common Swifts Apus apus feeding over the site has gone from zero to over 100 and the number of observed Great Green Bush Crickets Tettigonia viridissima has risen from zero to well over 50. Between 1982 and 2001 Marbled White Melanargia galathia butterflies were never seen on the site, but on one day in 2011, 189 individuals were recorded on transects covering only 10% of the site (Barn Owl Trust, unpublished data). Carpets of wildflowers, many hundreds of butterflies, countless invertebrates, and the bird species that feed on them are now present every year.

Fig 1.12 Perfect Barn Owl foraging habitat created by the Barn Owl Trust. Permanent rough grassland with a good litter-layer is a wonderful habitat supporting a wide range of species, particularly invertebrates. We have been amazed by the sheer scale of increases in an extremely diverse range of species, including birds, flowers and butterflies as well as small mammals and their predators (see Chapter 5). © Barn Owl Trust. Photographer Matthew Twiggs.

1.3.2 Commercial realities and advisory work

Persuading farmers and landowners to change the way they do things is far from easy – and yet, to a large extent, the conservation of farmland wildlife depends upon achieving this. Barn Owls are a flagship species and the thought of having Barn Owls on the farm is sometimes a sufficient incentive to secure a commitment to improve habitat. However, for most, the profit margin is always going to be more important than the field margin and conservationists need to understand the commercial realities that farmers face. To be able to visit a farm, understand the farmer’s needs, understand the needs of wildlife, and arrive at the best possible compromise is a significant skill, especially when advice is delivered with tact and diplomacy, ample knowledge and an infectious enthusiasm for wildlife. The Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group (FWAG) are devoted to this cause as (to some extent) are all wildlife organisations that offer advice. The Barn Owl Trust, along with many independent Barn Owl groups and individual enthusiasts, carries out habitat advisory work specifically with Barn Owls in mind. Of course there are numerous others who offer farmland wildlife advice in pursuit of their own particular objectives. The provision of financial incentives through agri-environmental grant schemes is obviously important in this regard. However, experience shows that the scope for habitat improvement is often greater with non-agricultural land, that is, land that is not managed for profit. For further information, see Chapter 5.

Fig 1.13 Aerial view of rough grass field margins on arable land in Cornwall. The combination of a thick hedgerow, wide band of thick tussocky grass and cereal crop provides ideal conditions for voles, shrews and mice. © Barn Owl Trust. Photographer David Ramsden.

1.3.3 Providing nestboxes

The most popular conservation measure for Barn Owls is undoubtedly nestbox erection and in the late 1990s it was estimated that 25,000 boxes for Barn Owls had already been erected. In many areas Britain’s Barn Owl population has become largely dependent on the provision and maintenance of nestboxes because of a severe lack of natural nest/roost sites (such as hollow trees) and semi-natural sites (such as old barns). For this reason it is vitally important that nestboxes are designed, positioned and sited in ways that maximise their suitability for the birds (see Chapter 6). However, experience unfortunately indicates that the design and siting of nestboxes is more often influenced by considerations of human satisfaction than by an assessment of the owls’ real needs. Nestboxes are erected by a wide range of individuals, local volunteer groups and by several larger organisations. Before checking or replacing an existing box always ask the site owner who erected it, liaise as appropriate, avoid duplication of work and remember the importance of minimising disturbance to the birds (see 3.1.5).

Fig 1.14 A purpose-made nestbox (with its lid removed) about to be erected in a modern agricultural building. © Barn Owl Trust. Photographer David Ramsden.

1.3.4 Reducing mortality

Other on-site Barn Owl conservation measures include the prevention of drowning by the fitting of safety devices to water troughs and advice aimed at reducing the likelihood of Barn Owls being poisoned by eating poisoned rodents (see 7.3.1).

At the other end of the scale is the strategic role of agricultural policy reform for the benefit of farmland birds, mainly carried out by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and other national campaigns aimed at reducing the impact of specific problems. For example, after years of pressure, rodenticide manufacturers finally included the words ‘harmful to wildlife’ on their products. However, the information they currently provide on secondary poisoning is still woefully inadequate (see 7.3.2.3).

Fig 1.15 Since 2003 manufacturers have been required to include the statement ‘HARMFUL TO WILDLIFE’ on rodenticide products. However, they are not yet required to provide ANY information about secondary poisoning or point out that these products KILL Barn Owls. Nor are they required to state that 89% of Barn Owls contain these types of poison and that the effects of sub-lethal doses are unknown (see 7.3.1 and 7.3.2). © Barn Owl Trust. Photographer Matthew Twiggs.

In spite of the thousands of Barn Owls killed every year on Britain’s trunk road network, intense pressure from the Barn Owl Trust (Ramsden 2003), and the reassurances given in its Biodiversity Action Plan, the Highways Agency has singularly failed to introduce measures which would adequately protect this iconic ‘protected species’ (see 7.3.3).

1.3.5 Biodiversity Action Planning for Barn Owls

Biodiversity Action Planning is a proactive process whereby all those with an interest in a particular species or habitat get together and ultimately agree upon a list of beneficial actions. These actions are then implemented by individuals or organisations identified in the plan and the agreed Leader or Champion monitors progress. Species Action Plans for Barn Owls are currently contained within 83 Local Biodiversity Action Plans in the UK. A full list is provided in Appendix 2 Barn Owls in Biodiversity and Species Action Plans. For anyone involved in the production or improvement of a plan, Appendix 2 provides further information including a list of appropriate actions. Biodiversity Action Planning highlights particular conservation concerns and can stimulate media interest and attract funding. Whether or not it results in sustained conservation action depends to a large extent upon strong leadership.

1.3.6 Barn Owls need YOU: a personal plea

If we consider that 89% of Britain’s Barn Owls have been eating poisoned rodents, that about a quarter of all the young Barn Owls that fledge die on a major road, and that starvation is almost certainly an even bigger cause of mortality than either of these factors, then it seems absolutely astonishing that there are any left at all!

The Barn Owls that need your help are the ones in your area. Whether you are an arable grower in East Anglia, a West Country dairy farmer, a shepherd in Wales, a commercial forester in the Scottish Borders, an ecological consultant in the Home Counties, a coastal ornithologist, a Crown Estates land agent, a university conservation volunteer, or involved in any other land-related activity, BARN OWLS NEED YOUR HELP.

If your work is countryside or bird related (e.g. farming, rural buildings, trees, planning, development or conservation) you can certainly help by being more aware of the possible presence of Barn Owls in the course of your work.

If you have colleagues or customers, why not ask them if they ever see a Barn Owl? Raising awareness is not particularly difficult, or time consuming, but it is important and can be likened to ‘sowing seeds’ in people’s minds. The next time you meet, raise the subject of Barn Owls again and see if the ‘seed’ has germinated. As soon as it feels appropriate, make a suggestion that will lead to action. Something like: ‘By the way, there’s a local Barn Owl group based down at xxxxxxxxxxx, and I’m sure they’d be interested – I’ll give you their number’. Some landowners are just not interested, some are fiercely independent and