Power Electronics: Switches and Converters

Power Electronics

Switches and Converters

VOLUME 1 :

JEAN POLLEFLIET

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Part 1: Semiconductor Switches

1: The Philosophy of Power Control

Abstract

1 Control of Electrical Energy Using Switches

2 Switching Matrix

3 Controllable Semiconductors

4 Properties of Switches

5 Commutation

6 Power Converters

7 Power Frequency Domain

8 Evaluation

2: Power Diodes

Abstract

1 Semiconductors

2 I-V Characteristic of a Junction Diode

3 Power Diodes

4 Data of a Power Diode

5 Excerpts from Data Books

6 Evaluation

3: Transistor Power Switches

Abstract

1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

2 Power Mosfet

3 IGBT

4 Evaluation

4: Thyristors

Abstract

1 Shockley Diode

2 Unidirectional Thyristor (SCR)

3 Diac

4 Two Directional Thyristor (TRIAC)

5 Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)

6 The MOS Controlled Thyristor or MCT

7 Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor (IGCT) - Firm ABB

8 Evaluation

5: Notes

Abstract

1 Electrical and Mathematical Notation

2 Opto-Electronics

3 Hall-Effect Sensors

4 Heat Dissipation of Semiconductors

6 Normalisation of Resistor and Capacitor Values

7 Colour Code for Capacitors

8 Type-Indication of Semiconductors and IC’s

9 The Skin Effect

10 EMC - EMI

11 SI-Surface Area of Power Switches

12 SIZE WINDING WIRE (AWG = American Wire Gauge)

13 Telecommunication

14 Radio-Frequency Transmission Lines

6: Computer Simulations

Abstract

1 Introduction

2 History: analogue simulations

3 Simulation with Block Diagrams: Simulink

4 Simulation of an Electrical Network − Spice

5 Multilevel Model and Simulation: Caspoc

Part 2: Power Converters

7: Inductively Loaded Rectifiers

Abstract

1 Current Flow of an Inductive Circuit with a Sinusoidal Supply

2 Current and Voltage Flow of an Inductively Loaded Single Phase Rectifier

3 Approximations in the Study of Rectifiers

4 Half Wave Three-Phase Rectifier - Resistive Load

5 Three-Phase Bridge Circuit

6 Table 7-3 Single-Phase Rectifiers

7 Table 7-4 Three-Phase Rectifiers

8 Evaluation

8: Controlled Rectifiers

Abstract

1 Half Wave Single Phase Controlled Rectifier (E1) - Resistive Load

2 Resistive and Inductive Loaded E1-Controller

3 Table 8-1 Single Phase Power Control

6 Full Wave B2 -Controlled Rectifier, Resistive Inductive Load

7 Fully Controlled B6-Rectifier. Resistive Load

8 Full Controlled B6 -Rectifier-Resistive and Inductive Load

9 Full Controlled B6 -Rectifier

10 Twelve-Pulse Controllers

11 Evaluation

9: AC-Controllers

Abstract

1 Ac-Controller with Phase Control

2 AC - Controller with Integral Cycle Control

3 Turn-off snubber for thyristors

4 Solid-State Relays (SSR)

5 Radio Interference Suppression (RFI) of Thyristors

6 Evaluation

10: Cycloconverters

Abstract

1 Continuous Cycloconverter

2 Trapezium Cycloconverter

11: Control of Thyristors

Abstract

1 Firing Pulses

2 Pulse Transformers

3 Control IC for SCR and Triac

4 Triac Control with a Diac

5 Evaluation

12: Choppers

Abstract

1 Operating Principle of a Chopper

2 Control Methods

3 Resistive and Resistive-Inductive Loaded Choppers

4 Chopped Resistor

5 Chopper Control IC’s

6 Evaluation

13: Switch-Mode Power Supplies

Abstract

1 Basic Principle of Switch-Mode Power Supplies

2 Basic Converter Configurations

3 Isolated Switch-Mode Power Supply

4 Flyback Converter

5 Forward converter

6 Converter Control Strategies

7 Two-Transistor SMPS of the Forward Type

8 Forward with Multiple Outputs

9 Full Bridge of the Buck Type

10 Synchronous SMPS

11 SMPS Components

12 Overview of SMPS up to 2500W

13 Non Ideal Waveform

14 Digital Control of an SMPS

15 Evaluation

13 BIS Design of SMPS

16 The Design of Switch-Mode Power Supplies

14: Inverters

Abstract

A Three-Phase Inverters

1 Voltage and Current Source Inverter

2 Switching Matrix of a Voltage Source Inverter

3 180°-Type Inverter

4 Pulse Frequency Converter with a Constant DC Voltage

5 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

6 PWM Strategies

8 120°-Type Inverter

9 Common Switches Used in Inverters

10 Control Circuit for a Three-Phase Inverter Bridge of the 180°-Type

11 Three Level Inverters

B Single Phase Inverter

12 Basic Configuration of a Full Bridge Inverter

13 Unipolar and Bipolar PWM

14 Full Bridge with Unipolar PWM

15 Harmonics with Unipolar PWM

16 Evaluation

15: Applications of Power Electronics

Abstract

1 Uninterruptable Power Supplies (UPS)

2 High Frequency Inductive Heating

3 Power Factor Correction (PFC)

4 Lighting

5 Renewable Energy

6 Drive Technology

7 Motion Control

8 High Frequency Induction Cooking Plate

Evaluation: Solutions

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Vocabulary

Index

Copyright

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Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 978-0-12-814643-9

For information on all Academic Press Publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com

Publisher: Katie Hammon

Acquisition Editor: Lisa Reading

Editorial Project Manager: Natasha Welford

Production Project Manager: Mohana Priyan Rajendran

Designer: Jean Pollefliet (lay-out, illustrations, cover) and Mark Rogers

Typeset by SPi Global, India

Dedication

To my wife Gilberte

Preface

Our Dutch textbook Electronic Power Control first appeared in 1986 and has reached the eighth edition. The present book Power Electronics is the translated version of this eighth edition.

Every edition saw continuous updating rearranging as well as addition of material and chapters. At the same time attention was also paid to the didactic aspects. This is not just important for students but also for the large group of people who use the book for self study.

New in the eighth edition was a brief study of standing waves in transmission lines, of importance for a longue line between frequency converter and three phase motor.

Also new was an introduction to the principles of 3-level inverters and the study of the synchronous reluctance motor.

In this edition we continue to use the tradition of white and green pages. The green pages contain the mathematical derivations which in the first case are not necessary for studying the electronics. Once a sufficiently high level and the desire for specialist knowledge the reader can choose to make use of the green pages without disturbing the continuity of the study.

To mention a few numerical details, this book contains more than seven hundred figures, a hundred photos and more than fifty fully worked problems.

The purpose of the book is to explain the principles and applications of power electronics. Electronic switches and converters are studied in volume 1 and drive technology and motion control are dealt with in volume 2.

The largest part of this book is distilled from more than 40 years of lessons, talks and projects. The most important source of information is my students, especially the few hundred of whom I was the mentor I guided during their thesis for Master of Applied Engineering Sciences.

These I quided in wich I remain thankful and indebted to them.

To Lisa Reading and Nathasa Welford of Elsevier I wish to express my thanks for the pleasant cooperation.

I would also like to thank Prof. dr. ir. Bernard Baeyens of the Ibague University (Colombia) for correcting and improving the Spanish technical vocabulary.

Last but not least, we have to thank a number of manufacturers for their support in providing photos and data of their products.

In conclusion we wish the readers of this book a fruitful study.

Oostende, Belgium, September 2017

Jean.Pollefliet@telenet.be

With thanks for the cover photos:

© Photo IBA: scanner Proteus ® PLUS with HEIDENHAIN encoders (p. 18.26)

© LEM: isolated current and voltage measurement in the industry (p. 17.24)

© Maxon Motor: Mars Rover with 39 Maxonmotors (p. 20.34)

© Siemens: paper rolling machine (p. 19.45)

Part 1

Semiconductor Switches

1

The Philosophy of Power Control

Abstract

In this chapter we prove that to control the flow of electrical energy with maximum efficiency switches are always used. Furthermore, the energy transformation consists of a switching matrix. We study the properties (static and dynamic) of switches. Depending on the electrical power source and the consumer properties (AC or DC) four types of power converters are considered. What means commutation ? The possibilities are shown. Of importance is also the power frequency domain.

Key Words

switching matrix; control of electrical energy using switches; properties of switches; power converters; power frequency domain

Contents

1.Controlling electrical energy using switches

2.Switching matrix

3.Controllable semiconductors

4.Properties of switches

5.Commutation

6.Power converters

7.Power frequency domain

8.Evaluation

In the first half of the twentieth century electronics was synonymous with telecommunications. At that time this included telephony, radio and TV technology. During the Second World War (W.W.II) radar technology was developed and also the first electrical servo systems were built. Directly after W.W.II these servo systems were directly responsible for the birth of industrial automation. A new field was started: industrial electronics, also known as power electronics. This enabled electrical power to be controlled using electronic technology. Examples of this are control of motors (speed and torque), temperature control of ovens and buildings, lighting levels of lamps.

Electronic power control is a marriage of typical electronic technology and applications from the field of power engineering. It is a difficult marriage because power engineers don’t easily think in terms of electronic components and micro second time scales and on the other hand electronic engineers have little concept of motors in the megawatt range. So there is a need for engineers that have a knowledge of both fields.

The control of electrical power is extremely important for the following reasons:

1.Environmental reasons: preserving the environment requires cleaner electrical power

2.Reliable applications: increase of speed and accuracy

3.Energy saving: efficiency is very important and the accurate control of electrical power is a priority.

Only electronics can realize this level of control.

1 Control of Electrical Energy Using Switches

In power electronics to control the flow of electrical energy with maximum efficiency switches are always used. To illustrate this:

Imagine the resistive element of an oven with Rv  = 5Ω connected to a voltage of 500 V (fig. 1-1). To control the electrical energy in the oven a variable resistor R1 is required to be connected between the supply and the load Rv . For various values of R1 . The results of the calculation are presented in table 1-1. The efficiency as a function of R1 is shown in fig. 1-2.

Fig. 1-1 Power control using a resistor

Table 1-1

Fig. 1-2 Efficiency of circuit in fig. 1-1

Next we examine the circuit in fig 1-3 in which the series resistance is replaced by a switch S. This switch is periodically opened and closed. We call tON the time that the switch is closed and tOFF the time that the switch is open. The time taken to open (ton ) and close (toff ) the switch is negligible.

Fig. 1-3 Power control using a switch

We determine the duty cycle of the circuit using :

   (1-1)

T is the period time. Multiplying by 100 gives the δ in %. Table 1-2 shows the calculated values of Psource , Poven and the efficiency η for a number of values of δ. The efficiency as a function of the duty cycle is shown in fig. 1-4.

Table 1-2

Fig. 1-4 Efficiency of configuration in fig 1-3

Comparing the graphics of fig.1-2 with fig. 1-4 shows that efficiency of power control is the reason switches are used instead of continuously varying elements. If the power flux is passed through the switches and the switches are power semiconductors, then we use the term power electronics.

2 Switching Matrix

Every energy transformation can be derived to a switching matrix (fig.1-5). The voltage between b output lines is formed by selected connections with a input lines during a specific part of the working cycle. Via suitable control signals the individual switches are operated. The output voltage is composed of segments of the input voltage.

Fig. 1-5 General switching matrix

To connect a lines with b lines a x b switches are required (fig. 1-5). In the configuration of fig. 1-6 one line is common to input and output and therefore no switch is required for this line. Here b = 1 and a = 1 and (a x b) one switch is sufficient. With the exception of the triac, semiconductors are unidirectional, in other words they conduct in only one direction. To make the circuit bidirectional, that is with a reversible output and input function, 2 x a x b switches are required. Example: A dc-motor with (b = ) 2 lines bidirectionally connected with (a = ) 3 lines from an AC grid requires 12 switches.

Fig. 1-6 Simple switching matrix

Filters

As a result of switching action undesired frequencies are generated in the supply lines which may necessitate an input filter. On the other hand the switching of the output produces a waveform that is only an approximation of the desired waveform. An output filter helps to approximate the ideal waveform by blocking undesirable ripple voltages and currents from reaching the load.

Filters significantly increase the cost price, weight and volume of the installation. It should be determined if filters are necessary for a particular application and if so, how much should be filtered.

3 Controllable Semiconductors

As far as controllability is concerned, three types of semiconductors can be distinguished:

TYPE 1 = NON CONTROLLABLE SWITCHES = DIODE:

conducts automatically when the anode is positive in relation to the cathode and reverse biases before the current goes through zero.

TYPE 2 = CONTROLLED ON SWITCHES = THYRISTOR:

conducts in response to a control signal and reverse biases before the current goes to zero.

TYPE 3 = CONTROLLED ON - OFF SWITCHES = TRANSISTORS, GTO, MCT, IGCT:

via control signals the switches conducts or reverse biases.

Note that a higher type number corresponds to more possibilities. A type -2 switch can be used as a type-1 switch but not the other way around.

4 Properties of Switches

A switch is characterised by the voltage (Vnominal ) which it can continually handle in the open position and the current (Inominal ) which it can conduct in the closed position. These static properties can be seen in fig 1-7, in which the difference between an ideal switch and a real switch is highlighted.

Fig. 1-7 Static properties of ideal and real switches

A switch is also characterized by its dynamic properties, especially the time to close (ton ) and open (toff ). This is illustrated in fig. 1-8. Once again the distinction between an ideal and real switch is clear.

Fig. 1-8 Dynamic properties of a switch

In fig. 1-9 we can also now determine the operating points A and B for a switch in a I-V graph. This has been done for both the ideal and real switch of fig 1-7.

Fig. 1-9 Operating points in a V - I graph

5 Commutation

Commutation is the process whereby the current through a switch goes through zero. If the supply is AC then it can be natural or net commutation (line commutation) because:

1.The current through the switch goes to zero because of the zero crossover of the grid, or

2.The circuit is switched via another switch to a higher potential.

With a type 3 switch commutation can be artificial at any random time. This is referred to as forced commutation but in fact all commutation is forced so to distinguish it the term artificial commutation is preferred. It is also possible that the load characteristic is such that the switch is forced into commutation, this is load commutation.

6 Power Converters

In the industrial world electrical energy is available in two forms:

1.As alternating current (AC) via a distribution network

2.As direct current (DC) via a battery system or via an overhead cable or rail for traction systems.

In addition to the two distribution forms (DC and AC) of electrical energy we can also distinguish two types of consumers:

1.Direct current consumers

2.Alternating current consumers

To regulate the power flow between current source (DC or AC) and consumer (DC or AC) four types of power converters are used (fig. 1-10):

1.DC controller: An AC voltage from the grid is converted into a controllable DC voltage

2.AC controller: An AC voltage from the grid is converted into a variable AC voltage with the same frequency

3.Chopper: A constant DC voltage is converted to another constant or variable DC voltage

4.Inverter: A DC voltage is converted into an AC voltage which may be controlled or not.

Fig 1-10 Power converters

DC and AC controllers make use of natural commutation since the supply is AC. Type 2 switches are used. In certain circumstances a DC controller can work in reverse as an inverter. Choppers and inverters make use of artificial commutation and use type 3 switches. A special category is the frequency converter. We distinguish between single stage and double stage converters. With a so called cycloconverter the frequency conversion takes place in one stage. In the two stage frequency converter the AC supply is first rectified and the DC voltage is converted back to AC via an inverter. The amplitude and frequency of the AC voltage may be varied.

7 Power Frequency Domain

Fig. 1.1 illustrates the state of the art in silicon power switches. Currently we see that with the exception of an SCR of 8.5 kV that thyristors are limited to 4 kV - 4 kA. This is a maximum of 16 MW per switch. This is considered the mid power domain.

These days an SCR is also known as Phase Controlled Thyristor (PCT).

There are for example single IGBT’s of 1200 V - 3600A, 1700 V - 2400 A and 3300 V - 1500A.

In a half bridge using IGBT’s a typical rating would be 1700 V -1000A. Exceptionally there exist IGBT modules for 10.2 kV.

State of the art components use 150 and 200 mm Si wafers with a tickness of 70 μm.

One can find the properties of SiC and GNa power switches on p. 3.35.

Fig 1-11 Properties of silicon power switches

Transport of electrical energy over long distances can be more economical using DC transmission. When the distance is greater than 250 km then transmission of 400 kV-1200 MW is more economical using (U)HVDC (ultra) (high voltage direct current). With submarine cables the distance is even shorter. In China and Brazil where large hydro electric power stations are more than a 1000 km from the big cities HVDC is used. Example: the 12 GW-link of 1100 kV (UHVDC) between Changji and Gucuan (3400 km) in China. With DC the losses are some 3% per 1000 km. On the other hand the investment costs are large at input and output of the transmission line. Another application of HVDC is the connection between AC - grids of different frequencies. An example is the Garabi back to back station which connects the 60 Hz grid of Brazil and the 50 Hz grid of Argentina.

In table 1-3 an overview is provided of a number of properties of type 3 switches. The indicated maximum values of voltage and current will not be attainable by one switch simultaneously. We find for example mosfets for 1000 V - 6A or for 100 V - 225A.

Table 1-3

8 Evaluation

1.1.What is state of the art?

1.2.What type of power converters can be used between a DC source and DC consumer?

1.3.The switching frequency of a switch is 10 kHz and the duty cycle is 10%. How long is the switch open during one work cycle?

1.4.When did industrial electronics begin?

1.5.What is the definition of power electronics?

1.6.What is a typical switching frequency for an IGBT? What do the letters IGBT stand for?

1.7.What is considered high current in power electronics?

1.8.Name three methods by which a power electronic switch can commutate?

1.9.In fig. 1-3 if T = 50 μs en δ = 0.25, sketch Ioven = f (time)

1.10.Sketch the output voltage of the circuit shown in fig. 1-6, if the switch is closed between 0 and 3 s and between 5.5 and 6.5 s.

1.11.Re-evaluate question 1- 9 with the following data

1)δ = 0.25 and ton = toff = 1 μs; 2) δ = 0.2 and ton = toff = 12.5 μs

1.12.What do the following terms mean: AC, DC, GTO, SCR, bipolar, mosfet, IGCT?

2

Power Diodes

Abstract

What are semiconductors? We study the I-V characteristics of a junction diode. We discuss turn-on and turn-off of a power diode (e.g. 100 to 1000A). What is specific for a Schottkydiode? We study in this chapter also limits of current and voltage for a power diode. A few words about cooling and I-squared t are also considered in this chapter.

Keywords

semiconductors; three layer structure; dynamic behaviour of a power diode; SiC Schottkydiode; data power diode; subscripts

Contents

1.Semiconductors

2.I-V characteristics

3.Power diodes

4.Data of a power diode

5.Excerpts from data books

6.Evaluation

1 Semiconductors

In electrical engineering in addition to conductors and insulators there are also semiconductors. What are the characteristics of such a material? The most important property of a semiconductor is that its electrical conductance in one direction is much better than in the other direction. This property is crucial for a diode in a rectifier for example.

Another property of a semiconductor is that at an average ambient temperature the specific resistance lies between that of metals and an insulator.

To conduct semiconductors need energy in the form of heat, light or a strong electric field.

At absolute zero (-273° C) a semiconductor is an insulator. A photo sensitive semiconductor in complete darkness adopts the properties of an insulator.

The most commonly used semiconductor at the moment is without doubt silicon (Si). Siliconcarbide (SiC) is making inroads in power applications as a diode. Presently a SiC diode costs considerably more than a Si diode but the cost difference is narrowing all the time.

Germanium and selenium are also used as semiconductors. Semiconductor technology also makes use of chemical connections. Examples are lead sulphide (PbS), gallium arsenide (GaAs), cadmium sulphide (Cds), indium phosphide (InP).

Arsenides, sulfides and selenides are primarily photosensitive semiconductors.

Thermistors, that is temperature sensitive resistors, are generally made of semiconductor oxides. In addition to referring to the material the term semiconductor is frequently used to refer to the components: diodes, transistors, thyristors etc. that are made from semiconductor material.

2 I-V Characteristic of a Junction Diode

The contact area of a PN-junction determines in large measure the admissible current.

For example there are diodes (IN4001, IN4003,…) that allow a current of 1A, while (large) power diodes allow 250A or more.

Fig 2-1 shows the I-V curve of a junction diode.

Fig. 2-1 I-V characteristic of a junction diode.

Here we observe:

1. a low voltage drop over the forward conducting diode

2. the reverse current is low

3. beyond a certain voltage (zener voltage VZ ) the reverse conduction increases sharply. For a rectifier diode we need to remain below VZ

4.  VRRM is the maximum allowable reverse repetitive peak voltage

5. the dynamic resistance

   (2-1)

is small (mΩ) in the forward direction and large ( MΩ ) in the reverse direction

6. the temperature influences the I-V curve, especially IR

7.  IFM is the maximum allowable peak forward current

8.  IFM and VRRM are two important specifications of a rectifier diode

9. Fig. 1 on p. 2.11 shows the IF-VF curve of an 1N4001. Take note of the logarithmic IF-axis.

3 Power Diodes

It may be necessary that a diode handle large currents ( e.g. 100 to 1000A) at high reverse voltages (e.g. 1 to 5 kV) and with good dynamic behavior. In addition power diodes need to be able to tolerate high junction temperatures. In order to allow the reverse voltage of a PN junction to be as large as possible we need to maintain the field strength in the barrier region as low as possible. This can be achieved by using small concentrations of majority carriers. In practice though the resistance of the diode material would be so large at the required current that the voltage drop would be tens of volts resulting in excessive power dissipation in the diode. The three layer diode can provide a solution to this problem. In the nearby future SiC diodes (see p. 3.34 ) will probably become the diode of choice, especially in converters working at higher frequencies (16/20/50 kHz…).

3.1 Three layer structure

A three layer diode is constructed of zones of varied doping levels (fig. 2.2a). The outer zones (P and N) are heavily doped. The s-zone has a thickness of 50 to 400 µm and may be a P- or an N-zone but in any case with a very low doping level. Since the depletion zone near a junction primarily expands in the region of lowest doping (in this case the s region) we can reduce the field strength (E) as a consequence of the reverse voltage ( VR ) by increasing the width x of this zone.

Fig. 2-2 Structure of Si power diodes

   (2-2)

By means of this technique we obtain diodes with a reverse voltage of several thousand volts and voltage drops of 1 to 2 V with a current of for example 2000A. The maximum junction temperature is then 200° C.

The SPT-diode (Soft Punch Through) with its soft recover characteristic is a further development of this three layer structure. They are constructed to handle reverse voltages of 3.3/4.5/6.5 kV. Fig. 2-2b shows the cross section of an SPT diode.

3.2 Dynamic behavior of a power diode

In power electronics diodes are not only used in low frequency grid rectifiers but also in high frequency applications (kHz to tens of kHz). Applications include freewheel diodes and snubber diodes in choppers and inverters or rectifier diodes in switch mode power supplies. In these switching applications the dynamic diode properties are very important. The turn off properties are not only important for determining the switching losses of the diode but also the switching losses of the associated transistor switch.

A. Turn-on

When a diode starts to conduct (turn-on) a certain amount of time is needed to fill the central layer with charge carriers. During the forward recovery time tFR (fig. 2-3) the forward voltage drop across the diode is greater than the nominal voltage drop of 1,1 V. The thickness of the diodes central layer is proportional to the blocking voltage which means that a high voltage diode will have a greater VFP than a low voltage diode. This turn-on overvoltage VFP increases with temperature (+ 0.8% /°C) and the turn on time increases by approximately 0.4%/°C.

Fig. 2-3 Voltage drop diode during switch on

The turn on behavior of the diode depends upon:

. the applied voltage V

. the forward current IF

. the pitch dIF/dt

. the junction temperature TJ

. technology used to construct diode

B. Turn-off

During conduction there is a surplus of minority charge carriers in each layer of the diode (holes in the N-layer and electrons in the P-layer). The total space charge Q1 of a P + N-diode is for the most part made up of holes in the N-layer. At turn-off this surplus of charge carriers in the central layer will not immediately disappear. As a result the diode remains conducting for a time trr. This is shown in fig. 2-4. A part of the charge Q0 of Q1 disappears through recombination and the rest Qrr is responsible for the reverse current under the influence of the applied reverse voltage.

Fig. 2-4 Reverse recovery diode

Due to the presence of the space charge the diode for a time (t2 – t1) = ts remains polarized in the forward direction, but at time t 2 the charge carriers in the vicinity of the diode junction have gone and under the influence of the reverse voltage the barrier layer builds up quickly. The reverse current finally reaches its steady state value I R .

The time t3 – t1 = trr is the reverse recovery time. To determine t3 a line is drawn through 0.9 · IRM and 0.25 · IRM . We set t3 – t2 = tf .

The reverse recovery time trr (100 ns to 10 μs) depends upon

. the current IF flowing through the diode at that instant

. the reverse voltage VR that is applied

. the value of the reverse voltage

. the rate at which the current decreases (– dIF/dt)

. the junction temperature TJ

The reverse recovery time trr is often used by circuit designers but does not correspond to any practical situation. Therefore trr is often determined under test conditions:

IF = –15A/μs and VR = – 30 V; TJ  = 25°C

In order to collect and have meaningful data available the firm Thompson CSF defines the values IRM and tIRM under the following conditions:

IF  = 2 · IAV; = –4 · IAV /μs; TJ  = 100°C

is limited and this is referred to as a soft recovery diode as opposed to the snap off recovery diodes which often resulted in high frequency oscillations.

Remark

The dissipation at turn-on is small compared to turn- off. At the grid frequency (50 Hz) the total dissipation due to turn-on and turn-off is negligible. The diode losses can become significant in circuits which operate at higher frequencies (kHz) such as solar converters, etc.

The turn-off can change somewhat if there is a self inductance present in series with the diode (e.g. as in fig. 2-5). This can result in large overvoltage VRM.

Fig. 2-5 Diode turn-off when a self inductance is present in series with the diode

Suppose diode D is conducting (IF ). When the switch S is closed the current IF decays, according to dIF / dt = VR / L

During reverse recovery the current dIR / dt will result in an induced voltage across the inductor L (fig.2-5) : EL = L · dIR /dt = VR . This voltage EL together with VR is in reverse across the diode so that VRM = VR + EL = V R (1 + ).

Here we see that dIF/dt is determined by the circuit and dIR/dt by the diode.

A small conversion gives :

   (2-3)

Fig. 2-5 shows how this reverse voltage can look.

Conclusions:

• the turn-on properties are mostly insignificant. They can play a role in low voltage applications such as for example in the base circuit of a transistor.

• the turn-off properties are important:

1. soft recovery prevents oscillations and high reverse voltage.

2. a small IRM limits the switching losses in the diode and accompanying transistor switches as we