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Non-destructive Testing and Evaluation of Civil Engineering Structures
Non-destructive Testing and Evaluation of Civil Engineering Structures
Non-destructive Testing and Evaluation of Civil Engineering Structures
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Non-destructive Testing and Evaluation of Civil Engineering Structures

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The non-destructive evaluation of civil engineering structures in reinforced concrete is becoming an increasingly important issue in this field of engineering.

This book proposes innovative ways to deal with this problem, through the characterization of concrete durability indicators by the use of non-destructive techniques. It presents the description of the various non-destructive techniques and their combination for the evaluation of indicators. The processing of data issued from the combination of NDE methods is also illustrated through examples of data fusion methods.

The identification of conversion models linking observables, obtained from non-destructive measurements, to concrete durability indicators, as well as the consideration of different sources of variability in the assessment process, are also described. An analysis of in situ applications is carried out in order to highlight the practical aspects of the methodology.

At the end of the book the authors provide a methodological guide detailing the proposed non-destructive evaluation methodology of concrete indicators.

  • Presents the latest developments performed in the community of NDT on different aspects
  • Provides a methodology developed in laboratory and transferred onsite for the evaluation of concrete properties which are not usually addressed by NDT methods
  • Includes the use of data fusion for merging the measurements provided by several NDT methods
  • Includes examples of current and potential applications
LanguageEnglish
Release dateNov 22, 2017
ISBN9780081023051
Non-destructive Testing and Evaluation of Civil Engineering Structures

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    Book preview

    Non-destructive Testing and Evaluation of Civil Engineering Structures - Jean-Paul Balayssac

    Non-destructive Testing and Evaluation of Civil Engineering Structures

    Jean-Paul Balayssac

    Vincent Garnier

    Structures Durability in Civil Engineering Set

    coordinated by

    Christian La Borderie and Alain Sellier

    Edited by

    Table of Contents

    Cover

    Title page

    Copyright

    Foreword

    List of Notations

    1: Introduction

    Abstract

    1.1 The beginnings of NDE

    1.2 Industrial development of NDE

    1.3 Civil Engineering works

    1.4 Coordination of the monitoring of Civil Engineering structures and the role played by NDE

    1.5 Summary of the development of NDE

    1.6 Contents of the book

    2: Ultrasonic Methods

    Abstract

    2.1 Introduction

    2.2 Theoretical bases

    2.3 Description usual methods

    2.4 Innovative techniques

    2.5 Summary

    3: Electromagnetic Methods

    Abstract

    3.1 Introduction

    3.2 Theoretical bases

    3.3 Overview of usual electromagnetic methods

    3.4 Usual and innovative applications

    3.5 Summary

    4: Electrical Methods

    Abstract

    4.1 Theoretical bases

    4.2 Description of the different resistive methods of non-destructive evaluation

    4.3 Usual applications and developments

    4.4 Conclusion

    5: Electrochemical Methods

    Abstract

    5.1 Introduction

    5.2 General principles on the corrosion of steel in concrete

    5.3 Measurement of electrochemical potential

    5.4 Measurement of linear polarization resistance

    5.5 Measurement of the electrical resistivity of concrete

    5.6 Conclusions

    6: Quality, Uncertainties and Variabilities

    Abstract

    6.1 Introduction

    6.2 Material variability: spatial and temporal aspects

    6.3 Representative Volume Element of the concrete with respect to an NDE

    6.4 Metrological terminology and formalism

    6.5 Evaluation of the uncertainties of NDEs applied to concrete structures

    6.6 Qualification of NDE methods

    6.7 Summary

    6.9 Appendix

    7: Construction of Conversion Models of Observables into Indicators

    Abstract

    7.1 Introduction: objectives and methodological needs

    7.2 Identifying conversion model parameters

    7.3 Use of the conversion model to assess indicators

    7.4 Uncertainties and accuracy of estimates, recommendations

    7.5 Conclusions

    8: Assessment of Concrete by a Combination of Non-Destructive Techniques

    Abstract

    8.1 Introduction

    8.2 The benefit of combining NDEs

    8.3 How can NDE techniques be combined?

    8.4 Calibration of conversion models for combining and merging NDE techniques

    8.5 Conclusions

    9: Applications In Situ

    Abstract

    9.1 Introduction

    9.2 Structure no. 1: Marly motorway bridge

    9.3 Structure no. 2: enclosure walls of CEA-Saclay

    9.4 Conclusions and perspectives

    10: Methodological Guide

    Abstract

    10.1 Introduction

    10.2 NDE methodology of a structure

    10.3 Implementation of non-destructive techniques

    10.4 Destructive measurements of the reference values of the indicators

    10.5 Fusion of observables

    10.6 Drafting of the evaluation report

    10.7 Evolutions of this guide

    Websites

    Glossary

    List of Authors

    Index

    Copyright

    First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Press Ltd and Elsevier Ltd

    Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

    ISTE Press Ltd

    27-37 St George’s Road

    London SW19 4EU

    UK

    www.iste.co.uk

    Elsevier Ltd

    The Boulevard, Langford Lane

    Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB

    UK

    www.elsevier.com

    Notices

    Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

    Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

    To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

    For information on all our publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com/

    © ISTE Press Ltd 2018

    The rights of Jean-Paul Balayssac and Vincent Garnier to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

    British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

    A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

    Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

    A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

    ISBN 978-1-78548-229-8

    Printed and bound in the UK and US

    Foreword

    In France, as in many developed countries, the Trente Glorieuses from 1945 to 1975 marked the construction of many large-scale civil engineering structures. As such, these structures built largely from reinforced or prestressed concrete are beginning to show signs of aging. The national average lifespan of highway bridges in France is 50 years. Hydro-electric power stations have an average lifespan of 60 years, and nuclear power plants have an average lifespan of 33 years.

    The design of reinforced concrete structures is classically based on an expected lifespan of 100 years. Generally speaking, structures begin to deteriorate rapidly towards the end of this period due to the corrosion of reinforcements, and maintaining them requires major renovation works. This notion is highly statistical, and facilities managers work to ensure structures are monitored regularly and checked for signs of damage.

    A comprehensive study carried out on 48 structures located on a French highway aged between 20 and 25 years old determined an average carbonation depth of 11 mm in columns, with one-third of them exceeding 15 mm. Taking into account constructive provisions, the study resulted in the diagnosis that reinforcements will begin to corrode after 50 years, with more significant deterioration occurring after 80 years. Structural safety is largely ensured within the 100-year time-frame.

    Today, visual monitoring is used which solely facilitates the detection of advanced corrosion of reinforcements; essentially assessment of cracks, water marks containing corrosion products, or deteriorated concrete exposing corroded reinforcements. Therefore, monitoring is unable to identify when the depassivation threshold of reinforcements is exceeded, and is equally unable to foresee the onset of corrosion due to chloride penetration or carbonation of concrete at a depth equal to, or greater than, the depth of reinforcements.

    In the near future, visual monitoring will be complemented by regular targeted inspections enabling penetration fronts of aggressive agents and the carbonation of concrete to be measured, and the scheduling of preventive protection measures such as the implementation of protective coatings. This preventive management will increase the lifetime of structures and reduce management costs.

    Why, then, are these measures not already in place? They required drilling and extraction of the same amount of cores as measurements of penetration fronts of aggressive agents and projected durability indicators. The cost and duration of inspections would have therefore become prohibitive, without taking into account the impossibility of transforming structures into Swiss cheese…

    We understand the major interest in developing reliable and high-performing non-destructive evaluation (NDE) for concrete, enabling us to measure these indicators, and this is precisely what the research presented in this book intends to achieve. Starting with a blank page fifteen years ago, we have never been as ready as we are today to lead the way.

    The combination of simple, inexpensive, electromagnetic, acoustic and electric methods enables us to determine durability indicators and damage fronts via data fusion; subject to calibrating measurements on several destructive samples. It is crucial that the methodology integrates one of the important parameters of the material, its variability, calculation of which is essential for engineers, especially within the scope of predicting the remaining lifetime of a structure.

    This book focuses on the aforementioned methodology characterizing concrete indicators via Non-Destructive Evaluation, and has been written by a group of French specialists, researchers and engineers who have worked in this field for over 15 years.

    Thierry Kretz, Director of the Department of Materials and Structures, The French Institute of Science and Technology for Transport, Development and Networks (IFSTTAR)

    List of Notations

    A wave amplitude

    α non-classical nonlinearity parameter

    αEM attenuation coefficient of electromagnetic waves (Np/m)

    ATME Arrival Time of Maximum of Energy (s)

    AtS attenuation of surface waves (dB/m)

    αUS attenuation coefficient of ultrasonic waves (Np/m)

    B Stern-Geary constant (mV)

    β Classical nonlinearity parameter

    βf Impact-Echo form factor

    c speed of light (3.10⁸ m/s)

    CC correlation coefficient

    ci molar concentration (mol/l)

    COH coherent calibration

    COV coefficient of variation (%)

    Cov(x,y) covariance

    CWI ultrasonic coda wave interferometry

    D diffusivity of ultrasonic waves (m²/s)

    DE Destructive Evaluation

    DF difference in frequency (Hz)

    DLatm apparent luminosity due to the atmosphere

    DLenv apparent luminosity due to the environment

    DLObj apparent luminosity due to the direct radiative contribution of the object

    DLtot total apparent luminosity

    E module of elasticity or Young Modulus (MPa)

    E electric field (V/m)

    Ea potential of active steel (V)

    Ecorr corrosion potential of the electrochemical system (V)

    Ecorr,a corrosion potential of active steel (V)

    Ecorr,p corrosion potential of passive steel (V)

    Elibre potential of the steel before injection of current (V)

    Ep potential of passive steel (V)

    ES Energy source

    ε strain

    ε* complex permittivity

    ε’ dielectric constant

    ε" loss factor

    εB random noise representative of errors

    εd increase in speed (m/s)

    εe* effective complex permittivity

    εe’ effective dielectric constant

    εe" effective loss factor

    εr’ relative dielectric constant

    εr" relative loss factor

    Φ porosity (%)

    f frequency (Hz)

    f0 initial frequency (Hz)

    fc compression resistance (MPa)

    fc est estimated compressive strength (MPa)

    fc mes measured compressive strength (MPa)

    H magnetic field (T)

    I indicator

    Ia active steel current (A)

    ICE current injected by counter-electrode (A)

    icorr corrosion of electrochemical system current density (A/m²)

    icorr,a active steel current density (A/m²)

    icorr,p passive steel current density (A/m²)

    IDE indicators measured from destructive

    INDE indicators estimated from non-destructive evaluation

    Iest stimated indicator

    IGR current injected by guard ring (A)

    Im galvanic corrosion current (A)

    Imes measured indicator

    Ip passive steel current (A)

    JT total displacement current density (A /m²)

    k wave number (rad/m)

    Kd decorrelation coefficient

    λ wavelength (m)

    L distance (m)

    λ and μ Lamé coefficients (Pa)

    λi equivalent conductivity (S.m²/mol)

    M model

    m cementation factor

    MV calibration by mean value

    n refraction coefficient

    NC number of cores

    NND number of measurements by NDE

    NDE Non-Destructive Evaluation

    Npar model parameters

    O observable

    Omes measured observable

    P source power

    Pc carbonated depth (mm)

    ρ true resistivity (S/m)

    ρ mass density (kg/m³)

    ρa apparent resistivity (Ω.m)

    ρw resistivity of the interstitial solution (Ω.m)

    QE quality estimator

    R rebound value

    Re electrical resistance of concrete (Ω)

    Rp polarization resistance (Ω.m²)

    Rt reflection coefficient of ultrasonic waves

    rTE reflection coefficient of electromagnetic waves in transverse electric mode

    σ stress (MPa)

    σ(x) standard deviation of the variable x: <>

     σc conductivity (S/m)

    Sp polarized surface (m²)

    Sr degree of saturation (%)

    SHE Standard Hydrogen Electrode

    σUS dissipation of ultrasonic waves (1/m.s)

    t time (s)

    T period (s)

    TA calibration by affine transformation

    τatm atmospheric transmission εObj: emissivity

    tk reliability of each observable

    Tobj temperature of the object

    tP propagation time of longitudinal ultrasonic waves (s)

    Tt transmission coefficient of ultrasonic waves

    tTE transmission coefficient of electromagnetic waves in transverse electric mode

    U voltage (V)

    uc(yc) combined standard uncertainty

    ν Poisson’s ratio

    V ultrasonic wave propagation velocity (m/s)

    Var(x) variance

    Vcorr rate of corrosion (mm/year)

    VP velocity of compression waves (m/s)

    VPh phase velocity (m/s)

    VR velocity of Rayleigh waves (m/s)

    VS velocity of shear waves (m/s)

    ω angular frequency (rad/s)

    Z acoustic impedance (kg/m.s)

    zi valence

    αf mean reliability of all observables

    ε’ real part of the permittivity or dielectric constant

    πk (ind) possibility of the indicator deduced from the observable k

    π (k) possibility of the observable k

    π0 (ind) possibility of the studied indicator

     mean value of the variable x < x >

    1

    Introduction

    Jean Salin; Jean-Paul Balayssac; Vincent Garnier

    Abstract

    The purpose of this introductory chapter is to present the history of the use of non-destructive evaluation methods in industry. It also highlights that in the majority of situations, with the crucial exception of Civil Engineering, developments in this area respond to normative or regulatory constraints. To demonstrate this, we will refer to examples provided by pressure equipment, wind energy, aeronautical sectors, and ski lifts. Thereafter, we will focus on the context of Civil Engineering structures and examine some of the reasons for which the use of Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) has not experienced the same level of growth as that seen in other industrial sectors, even if resources are available for applications, many of which are also regulated. A census of the requirements for Non-Destructive Evaluation for Civil Engineering structures will also be carried out, by resituating it within the broader context of monitoring and asset management.

    Keywords

    Absence of standards; Aviation; COFREND; Existing regulations; Ski lifts; Socio-economic context; Wind energy sector

    The purpose of this introductory chapter is to present the history of the use of non-destructive evaluation methods in industry. It also highlights that in the majority of situations, with the crucial exception of Civil Engineering, developments in this area respond to normative or regulatory constraints. To demonstrate this, we will refer to examples provided by pressure equipment, wind energy, aeronautical sectors, and ski lifts. Thereafter, we will focus on the context of Civil Engineering structures and examine some of the reasons for which the use of Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) has not experienced the same level of growth as that seen in other industrial sectors, even if resources are available for applications, many of which are also regulated. A census of the requirements for Non-Destructive Evaluation for Civil Engineering structures will also be carried out, by resituating it within the broader context of monitoring and asset management.

    The primary objective of this book is to transfer collaborative research carried out on Non-Destructive Evaluation of concrete structures over the last twenty years into the technological realm. The second objective is to show the originality of the positioning of such studies aiming to characterize concrete indicators, in comparison to those of other international teams who use Non-Destructive Evaluation for imaging.

    1.1 The beginnings of NDE

    Since the dawn of time, mankind has carried out Non-Destructive Evaluations (NDE) using sensory tests (eyesight, hearing or touch). Modern non-destructive evaluations attempt to bring a certain level of objectivity to the evaluation of the condition of a system, by using increasingly sophisticated technologies, while also constantly pushing the limits of physics, technology, and analytical skills as far as possible. The history of techniques shows that the development of non-destructive evaluation tools has always been subject to pressure in terms of ensuring equipment safety, but this pressure is also of an economic, social, and even political nature.

    To provide an example of this, medical imaging by x-ray broke into the mass-market thanks to developments made by Marie Curie during World War 1, which sought to deal with the care needs for the thousands of soldiers wounded in battle [DEM 07]. The work carried out by the physicist Röentgen, as well as the doctors and dentists that supported her, enabled her to create non-laboratory mobile units; the portability of medical industry techniques immutably becoming the vehicle for development of a number of NDE techniques, from ultrasonic medical echography in the 1980s, to multiple-element sensors, normalized in 2015 for the purpose of examining metal parts. Sonar¹ for the detection of surface ships and submarines was also developed during this period. The development of radar technology² was initiated in 1904 with the purpose for ships to use it to avoid collisions and it was perfected and industrialized during the Second World War, particularly thanks to the invention of the magnetron. Physical principles defined in previous decades are; x-Ray emissions, silver-based photographic tools and radioscopy, ultrasound propagation, piezoelectricity, and the laws of electromagnetism respectively. As such, the principal technique at work can be summarized by Figure 1.1.

    Figure 1.1 Technical principle of observation

    The object under analysis is situated at the center of this technique, either on the surface or in volume, in order to find disparities or anomalies. We use a transmitter or source to illuminate the object, which for sonar may be the noise emitted by the ship itself and a hydrophone receiver. In the simplest case, this being visual examination, the source is light and the receiver the eye. Information resulting from this examination provides an indicator that can be used for diagnosis.

    1.2 Industrial development of NDE

    1.2.1 Pressure equipment

    Industries and railways have been developed with the use of steam engines ever since the mid 19th Century. The increasing number of accidents related to the use of steam, of which pressure, volume and temperature increase regularly, led States to implement legislation in order to regulate pressurized steam equipment by any means possible. In France, legislation was implemented in October 1907, before publication of the ministerial circular of 26th January 1926, concerning steam equipment for the preparation of coffee and cooking food, followed by the broader decree of April 2nd 1926. It included a deterministic approach based on the laws of physics (Gay Lussac) and mechanics, more specifically resistance to rupture or fatigue, supported by ten-year hydraulic testing during which a visual examination of all equipment was carried out. It was in force until the European Directive 97/23-CE and decree 99-1046 of 13th December 1999 were transposed into French law. Since its implementation in 1926, the regulatory framework has become enriched by feedback accumulated over the years, resulting in legislation such as the decree of January 18th 1943 for gas pressure devices, for example. In practical terms, this concerned refineries, industrial chemical or tire-making plants, steel-making, pipelines, etc.

    The decree of 26th February 1974 dealt more specifically with nuclear boilers; it was updated and replaced by the decree of November 10th 1999, after publication of the European directive. Addendums relating to the roles of actors were introduced via the Energy Transition for Green Growth Act on August 17th, 2015 (France). In terms of pressure equipment monitoring, the most effective measures used to examine all components (tanks and their welds, pipes, valve bodies, etc.) were integrated into legal texts by Parliament. To meet these requirements, the industry came together to develop codes and standards not only for the design, construction and operation of steam or gas pressure equipment, but also for non-destructive testing of this equipment prior to market entry, followed by monitoring of them when in operation. More than 130 general standards [AFN 14a] were validated at the end of 2014 at European level, relating to visual, ultrasonic, Eddy current, magnetic particle inspection, bleedout, X-ray, gamma radiography, stress-strain measurement, infrared thermography, acoustic emission, and sealing methods as well as those relating to the equipment necessary for their implementation. They are complemented by so-called product standards.

    In NDE compliance approaches, standards regulating the qualification of techniques implies the need for qualified staff. In France, personal certification (NF EN ISO 9712 - 2012) is maintained by COFREND, a third party organization. Relevant materials are primarily low-alloyed steel, chrome-based alloys, nickel, copper, and assemblies joined by welding, bolting or hoops.

    1.2.2 Aviation

    Another industrial domain in which NDEs have experienced significant development is that of civil aviation. Having experienced strong growth by the end of the first world war, the aviation industry quickly sought to re-purpose itself within the transport of post and passengers. In France, this process came to fruition as a result of studies prescribed by an order dated November 19th, 1909. It led to implementation of the decrees of June 6th 1919 and 17th September 1919 for technical service organizations and, due to fatal accidents, to the Act of June 30th 1933, establishing, among other elements, control of materials. This regulation continued to evolve in order to integrate feedback. In parallel, manufacturers were positioning themselves on an international level with the creation of the International Commission of Air Navigation in 1919, then in 1944 with what became known as the International Civil Aviation Organization. Within this regulatory context, NDE techniques were developed, qualified and normalized specifically for these materials, according to inspection periods, and periods when they were returned to the workshop for major refit operations, wherein the systematic replacement of parts was scheduled. This included materials such as aluminum or titanium-based alloys and fiber/polymer composites, with assembly by riveting, bonding and also by welding, but in smaller proportions. In France, the qualification of personnel is conducted by a third party organization within the COFREND framework according to international rules (European standard PR EN 4179 P5-2014 and American standard NAS 410 Revision 4).

    1.2.3 Wind energy sector

    More recently, the wind energy sector has experienced significant growth. A wind turbine is divided into two major parts depending on its functions and is made up of different materials. The reinforced concrete base upon which a metal pole is usually bolted is the first element of interest. At the top of the tower, the access platform containing all the electromechanical equipment necessary for the production of electricity via wind energy transmitted to the blades in composite materials is the second most significant piece of equipment. In this ultra-competitive sector, designers and manufacturers have grouped together to form an association (www.globalwindsafety.org) in order to enact codes and standards concerning design, manufacturing, certification and acceptance of works [IEC 10, BUR 12].

    The association issues certificates according to its own rules (Bildungs Zentrum für Erneuerbare Energien – Educational Center for Renewable Energy) in training centers for steering and structural monitoring personnel. In France, regulation primarily focuses on the environmental impact related to the establishment of a wind farm (ICPE ranking, Classified Installations for Environmental Protection, by instruction dated 27/08/2011). Designed for a 20 year lifespan, of which ten are under guarantee, the maximum profitability is studied by limiting maintenance to critical production or structural components, such as the bolt connections (all structural bolts tested over a 3 year period). The remaining components are only tested using visual examinations (for blades used in remote visual examinations), in order to anticipate incidents as effectively as possible. Sharing of information between owner-operators and manufacturers is limited in view of the aforementioned competitive environment in this method of electrical energy production. This can be a hindrance to the development of non-destructive techniques for on-site measurements.

    1.2.4 Ski lifts

    Aside from equipment maintenance, the inspection of lifts is also subject to a decree, dated May 15th 2007, enacted following fatal accidents (1999 in the Pic de Bure, and May and August 2004 in the Aiguille du Midi, both located in the French Alps), supplemented by the decree of August 7th 2009, which incorporated all stages of design though to operation, including material testing. The techniques employed are mainly ultrasounds, bleedouts, magnetic particle inspections and Eddy currents, adapted to materials (aluminum based steels or alloys), as well as components and assembly methods (such as welded pylons, cables, and pulleys and wheels). Staff are certified by COFREND on the same basis as for pressurized steam equipment.

    1.2.5 In the absence of standards

    From the regulatory measures presented above, it is apparent that efforts made by manufacturers concerning codes and standards were mainly aimed at meeting safety and security requirements by improving the quality of design and construction in order to market equipment. Follow-up work on the equipment is primarily carried out via renewal of non-destructive checks performed during production, or by another type of standardized testing if the area is difficult to access. The main goal is to verify whether the equipment consistently conforms to standards. This approach proved to be insufficient in response to aging equipment, and the need to detect the early development of pathologies such as fatigue, corrosion in different forms, and creeping.

    Equally, the time spent between the research and development phase of an NDE technique and its standardization may be significantly more than that of the industrial implementation period. To address these challenges, NDE procedures are developed by iteration between engineering offices and NDE operators. In the field of metal-work, it is recommended that they satisfy FD CEN/TR-14748 methodology, established in 2005 [CEN 05]. This methodology also enables us to respond to unique situations such as ITER construction on the site of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, a unique example wherein some metal components are inaccessible or partially accessible in operation.

    This view on non-destructive techniques applied to the evaluation of steel and composite structures shows the extent to which NDEs have changed over time, based on normative structuring of tests. In the next section of this chapter, we will analyze the positioning of non-destructive evaluation for Civil Engineering works in such an approach.

    1.3 Civil Engineering works

    1.3.1 Historical context and challenges

    The entirety of Civil Engineering structures would not have escaped legislative and regulatory framework if their aging in relation to the industrial era had not passed on a certain sense of sustainability far superior to the duration of use of industrial equipment, which is only a few decades at best. Until the beginning of the 20th Century, remarkable structures were essentially bridges, tunnels, aqueducts and canals, for the most part built from wood, and the remaining structures from metal. Maintenance of these structures was carried out by the Highways, Railways or Waterways agencies, and done so in a very Cartesian manner. As a side note, the notion of regular monitoring dates from this period. Personnel were assigned to a limited area and had faultless knowledge on the few structures that they were responsible for (road workers within the Highways Agency, for example). The notions of risk and damage to people and property were therefore addressed differently, since the structure remained local and rooted to its place of construction. The discovery of hydraulic concrete dates from the beginning of the 19th Century (Louis Vicat), reinforced concrete dates from mid 19th Century, followed by that of prestressed concrete dating from the first half of the 20th Century (Eugène Freyssinet). To support industrial development, many bridges were built in reinforced concrete, enabling an increased density of road and rail networks. After the Second World War, dams and power plants were built in response to the increased use of electrical energy. These structures became vital not only for their surrounding environment but also for areas of an increasingly large size. Other examples of this include port infrastructures, stations or business centers. The risk of failure of a structure became of increasing concern, since the number of people and economic assets exposed to this risk continued to grow.

    In addition, and unlike the traditional construction materials used before its introduction, concrete as a material is complex on several levels, such as:

    – its formulation by the quality and the quantity of cement and admixtures, the nature and size of aggregates and, more generally, the large variability of constituents [MEH 14, OLL 08];

    – its various implementation conditions dependent on several factors (human, environmental, etc.);

    – the construction period, which varies from a few hours for one casting, to months for major works carried out in several castings;

    – the size of structures, in decametric thickness (a minima), length and height greater than decametric;

    – integrated components such as reinforcements, pre- or post-tensioning cables, or even metal plates supporting external equipment.

    Combining concrete and steel to form reinforced concrete, a major technological breakthrough in the field of construction, benefited from bright prospects which were fostered by its rapid development. Effectively, both materials have very similar coefficients of thermal expansion, without which combining them would have been impossible. Furthermore, concrete is a material with a very basic pH, enabling passivation of steels, and therefore avoiding corrosion. However, this is only the case if the surrounding environment is not too aggressive. Concrete being a porous material and when cracked, it is vulnerable to external agents such as water, carbon dioxide present in the air, or even chlorides present in marine spray or de-icing salt on roads. If either one of the latter two agents come into contact with reinforcements, passivation will disappear, causing corrosion to occur. If there is sufficient humidity in the surrounding environment, this will cause the corrosion to spread, ultimately causing concrete to burst, a loss of steel sections, and therefore a loss of structural integrity. Other pathologies can also cause deterioration, a certain number of these being of an endogenous origin, for example alkali-aggregate reactions or delayed ettringite formation. As their occurrence is less common and identified later than corrosion, they are less frequently reported, yet their consequences can be disastrous [OLL 08]. These pathologies are slow to evolve in the majority of cases, as long as minimal construction provisions are respected (concrete of an appropriate quality, and sufficient distancing of passive surface steels) [AFN 14b], and also as long as constituent materials are adapted, or aging processes are managed.

    However, it should be noted that recommended cement dosages and minimum coatings stated in specifications (CCTP, BAEL, Eurocode 2) help ensure significant lifespans for engineering structures without fear of failure, with lifespans often surpassing 50 years. On site, concrete production concurs with its final setting, where hazards present on the building site relating to the provision and position of reinforcements, casing, scaffolding, or vibration will affect the TQC (Total Quality Control), in relation to a structure’s initial design plans. Fewer works are comprised of items referred to as prefabricated, whether in a factory or in a location off-site. Their geometries conform to design plans to a higher extent, but such prefabricated components encounter other types of problems during assembly operations, VIPP type bridges (viaducts with simply supported spans constituted of beams prestressed by post-tension) for example [GLU 11, GOD 14].

    1.3.2 Existing regulations

    The field concerning regulations put in place to monitor structures is very broad; here we will look at dams as an example. The construction of so-called large masonry dams, superior to 15 meters in height, experienced growth during the 19th Century, followed by the emergence of concrete structures at the beginning of the 20th Century [BOR 12]. A French landmark, the Genissiat Dam stands at 106 meters high and its construction began in 1936. Actors within the industrial sector collaborated within the International Commission of Large Dams (ICOLD) as of 1928 in order to codify studies from designation of construction sites to operation of structures, followed by their monitoring during construction and operation [FAB 14]. Monitoring and NDE techniques were progressively refined to meet these requirements.

    The law on the use of hydropower dating from October 16th, 1919 (France) was followed by many enactments. They were replaced by decree 2007–1735 of December 11th, 2007 pertaining to the safety of hydraulic structures and the Permanent Technical Committee for Dams and Hydraulic Structures (CTBPOH) (France). It has a technical structure similar to that of the Nuclear Boiler order dated November 10th, 1999. However, qualification requirements in place for NDE personnel and evaluation techniques are different, since it only stipulates the need for recognition of businesses by a State body and desk review. Therefore, this negates the need for a third party Security Authority, qualifying or certifying body for personnel.

    Concerning the nuclear industry, which includes energy production, the fuel cycle (manufacturing, transport and reprocessing), and the storage of waste from the latter two processes, civil engineering must respond to requirements regarding the containment of hazardous materials. This directly necessitates anti-seismic design both of structures and the equipment they contain, as well as resistance to both internal and external attacks. For power generation plants, this concerns containment buildings as well as nuclear and fuel ancillary buildings. Within the scope of containment buildings, it should be noted that operators design civil engineering structures in line with building regulations for major structures, currently referred to as EC2 [AFN 14b, TOU 11]. Following the design, operators define the criteria that the containment building must adhere to for the duration of its lifespan, along with verification measures of these criteria. These provisions are grouped and submitted for approval to the Nuclear Regulation Committee, which can then be incorporated into a decree establishing basic nuclear facilities. Provisions are in line with public radiation protection rules enacted by the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), an organization within the United Nations (UN) family.

    Systematic monitoring of bridges, tunnels and supporting monitoring was implemented for civil engineering structures in the 1990s, under the auspices of the Ministry of Infrastructure, via instruction from ITSEOA (Technical Instruction for Monitoring and Maintenance of Civil Engineering Structures) [ITS 16] and procedures such as the IQOA Quality Indicator for Civil Engineering Structures [SET 96], based primarily on visual inspection. This process provides a global and almost exhaustive overview of the condition of both public and private engineering structures by proposing a tiering system. Other monitoring tools have also been implemented for port infrastructures [CET 11].

    Knowledge acquired on the condition of engineering structures has enabled the development of regulations, codes and standards [AFN 14b], [TOU 11] in line with other industries, providing frameworks to supervise the design and construction of structures, but offering little in the way of follow-up measures once structures are in operation [GOD 14, FAB 14, ITS 16, SET 96, CET 11]. Until recently, a more traditional yet effective monitoring methodology was based on the proximity of stakeholders who, with training, were able to guarantee sound knowledge of structures and their temporal behavior, setting the Civil Engineering sector apart from other major industrial sectors. To make the most of theoretical and practical knowledge, networks linking architects, construction teams and engineering offices were created. As such, owner-operators relied on specialized engineering offices, as was the case

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