The Emergence of Christ Groups in India

Chapter 1

Introduction

In the beginning of the 1990s, World Literature Crusade (WLC), an American Christian organization, in its publication called ‘Everybody,’ published an article stating that 15,000 Christ Groups (house-churches) were formed all over India by their sponsoring mission called India Every Home Crusade (IEHC).¹ This news was an indicator for many mission practitioners of phenomenal growth of church planting was taking place in India when communal harmony was at stake. It was also seen as a remarkable achievement in the area of ‘church planting’ by any one mission in the post-colonial and the post-independence period of India. ‘Christ Groups’ are like ‘houses churches’, or as Lee (an ex-President of WLC) calls them, ‘baby churches’, which are formed in the rural parts of India. Long before the publication of this news, that is, in the late 1970s, McGavran, after his visit to India, wrote an article commending the formation of Christ Groups by IEHC and the good support that the WLC had provided.²

Meanwhile, between the late 1970s and the middle of the 1980s, WLC underwent a period of crisis in leadership and finances. During that period, there were five successive Presidents so that WLC’s ministry overseas underwent many different strategic changes and methods in its operation. One such move came from Dr. Dale Kietzman about the Christ Groups. Through his association with the World Magazine in 1986, a group of researchers was sent to do a sample survey of the Christ Groups. The teams were sent to a few selected States where the Christ Groups movement was claimed to be successful. One such team was sent to Karnataka State where the researcher accompanied them to guide and translate. The reports of researchers and subsequent visits of the Rev. Charles Wickman and Dr. Dale Kietzman, and their reports on Christ Groups suggested that they all tried to downplay the movement and, in the end (1987), Kietzman made a tactical move to end the support for the work of Christ Groups in India. He asserted that the WLC stands for the systematic distribution of the printed gospel booklet and will not divert its aim, therefore, saying ‘no’ to Christ Groups.

On the other hand, the Indian leadership under the late B. A. G. Prasad tried to keep up the movement through many innovative ideas such as partnership with like-minded missions within India and sought financial assistance overseas from other missions. Even then, he was categorically forbidden by Kietzman to extend any sort of help for Christ Groups. Moreover, Kietzman wrote strong reminders to Prasad about his continuing interest in Christ Groups. After Kietzman’s resignation in the late 1980s, Rev. Dick Eastman became the President of WLC and wisely avoided committing himself to mobilise funds for Christ Groups’ work. The movement continued while Prasad lived and when the subsequent leadership in India folded due to the pressure from the WLC leaders, the Christ Groups movement coame to a halt.

In spite of WLC’s and IEHC’s disassociation and distancing from Christ Groups, the movement continues. How did these Christ Groups survive and what were the factors that helped them to grow and expand? How did the experience of their past religion or religious influence enable them to withstand the indifferent attitudes of their masters while they continued to live as Christ’s witnesses and bearers of the Gospel and establish themselves? What was the perception of the members about Christ Groups? Who joined the Groups and why? How did the members manage to lead their Groups in the absence of evangelists who had led those Christ Groups but who were subsequently moved away by their mission to carry out the WLC’s ‘original aim’? On the one hand, why did WLC want to turn away from Christ Groups? What was their perception about Christ Groups? Did they acknowledge Christ Groups as their own?

On the other hand, why did the Indian leadership show interest in Christ Groups? Why and when did their interest fade away from Christ Groups? What made them to distance themselves from Christ Groups when they came under pressure from WLC leaders? Why did they choose to play a dual role with regard to Christ Groups? To have a better understanding of WLC and IEHC, it is important to consider the two different mission contexts and mind-sets in which they lived. WLC, on the one side, due to its linear context and under the influence of American ‘Mass-Evangelistic’ culture, showed entrepreneurial instincts and managerial efficiency. On the other, IEHC due to its relational context³ tried to hold Christ Groups for a while but as pressure mounted from WLC leaders, their interest in Christ Groups seemed superfluous.

At the same time, in a wider spectrum, how did the established Churches perceive these Christ Groups? Were these Groups accepted as true churches or looked down on by the Churches? Have Christ Groups passed the test of time? Did these Christ Groups need any recognition from the Christian churches, since their past religious experience and the influence of the pietistic movements of Bhakti and the Lingayats had given them the lead they needed to move forward. Today, Christ Groups, in spite of the turbulent times they have gone through, still continue even if not on the large scale of the 1990s. It will be interesting to see also how the Christ Groups saw themselves when they were disowned by their ‘masters’. Did this affect their existence or development? If not, what were the factors that helped them to go on without realizing what was happening around them?

The research is primarily of a missiological discipline. ‘Missiology’ for Ivan Illich was more than a mission of the church. He sees it as a ‘science’ and ‘history’, which studies the growth of the Church into new peoples, the birth of the Church beyond the linguistic barriers within which she feels at home.⁴ Further, Natlino adds that missiology is an interdisciplinary subject that makes use of all the findings of the other branches of theology in order to discern better and reflect more about the proper mission of the Church.⁵ Andrew Walls writing on David Bosch’s great contribution to missiological studies calls him ‘the most complete missiologist’, and states that Bosch’s understanding of missiology is the study of the range of disciplines and cognate studies used to assess the effectiveness of the mission.⁶ Ben Eckman and A. F. Glasser define ‘Missiology, or mission science, is the area of practical theology which investigates the mandate, message and work of the Christian missionary. Missiology is a multi-disciplinary and cross-cultural reflection on all aspects of the propagation of the Christian faith, embracing theology, history, geography, theories and methods of communication, comparative religion’. They further add, ‘Missiology also dips into the behavioural sciences, namely anthropology, sociology, psychology, and linguistics. It is not a mere borrower from other fields, for these dimensions are related to each other in dynamic symbiosis’.⁷ Jongeneel cites the development of missiology from ‘a small discipline in the nineteenth century to a mature discipline in the twentieth century and thus concludes that ‘missiology – is the totality of philosophical, scientific (=empirical), and theological studies of Christian mission’.⁸ I do not claim any mastery over the different branches of the subjects mentioned here in this study except for looking mainly at their application towards the mission practice he is engaged on in this research.

I made extensive trips to India and USA to collect data and archives and conducted interviews in the field with the members of Christ Groups and leaders of WLC and IEHC. Though the chapter on Christ Groups is placed in the middle of the book, the preceding chapters give a background to the study without which the study would have become incomplete and the analysis of the Christ Groups movement would have become more difficult. This research is the first academic study of Christ Groups in India. In 1989, a team (mostly of seminary students) from the US, was sent by the World Christian Magazine to India to do a brief survey, especially to assess their future. To gather the material, I first made contact with Mr. M. M. Maxton, then the executive director of IEHC, in 1998, to obtain permission to do a field survey in four Christ Groups in Karnataka. After obtaining permission, I then wrote to Mr. Albert Sudershan, the regional manager of IEHC Karnataka, to arrange for his visits to those fields. The manager wrote to his evangelists and asked them to cooperate in the field survey. For three weeks in February and March, I visited the four Christ Groups and collected data with open-ended questions from 200 people. Another two days were arranged with the field evangelists to validate the data collected from their respective fields. Then, one more week was spent to collect data from the leaders and staff of IEHC.

In 1999, I visited the USA to collect data from WLC and their past and present Presidents. WLC’s office in Colorado Springs gave access to all Indian files in the offices of the President and vice President. Access was given to all the statistical data and journals. A board resolution on Christ Groups was made available from the Trust department of the WLC. Interviews were conducted with the President and vice-President of WLC and a telephonic interview was conducted with the former President of WLC. WLC office also allowed me to have the copies of some of the letters and statistical papers. I was given access to journals and magazines and to make copies. WLC office helped me find the reports on Christ Groups by Bayard Taylor and Charles Wickman.

I conducted a personal interview with Dr. Jack McAlister and Mrs. Hazel McAlister who took me to theirhome. Mr. McAlister provided some written material which otherwise was not available anywhere. He also made arrangements for me to speak to Mr. Yohann Lee, a former President of WLC, and asked him to provide the needed information. I conducted a personal interview with Dr. Dale Kietzman in his office at the World Mission Centre, Pasadena. Thus, I was able to gather first hand material from original sources which have been invaluable to the study.

It is important to study, (1) the socio-religious cultural contexts of the institution leaders, that is, of the United States and India, (2) their perception of Christ Groups in the light of their cultural contexts, and (3) the perception of the members towards Christ Groups in their own contexts. I also examined many other contributory factors, both internal and external, that influenced the continuation of the Christ Groups movement.

The study on Christ Groups is not the same as Pickett⁹ and McGavran’s¹⁰ study on Mass Movements and Church Growth. The study on Christ Groups ishows how the people took the message when it was delivered to them by their own countrymen. They were willing to own to it and appropriate it without divorcing themselves from their culture. This process would not have been possible if the same message was delivered by missionaries, who would have forced their culture on the natives. Thus, the intent of this study is to examine the context of Christ Groups, that is, their formation, development, and continuation. The contexts of the WLC and IEHC are also studied for a better understanding of the Christ Groups.

Field research has investigated the nature and extent of both social and religious contexts and related factors. At the institutional level, that is, of WLC and IEHC, what are their perceptions, involvement and exclusion of Christ Groups? Did this affect the Christ Groups or not? At the members’ level, what are the factors that influenced them to join the Christ Groups? What are the contributing factors that generate their convictions so that they actively participate in the development of Christ Groups? What factors influence the involvement and non-involvement of members in evangelism, social issues and personality development?

The objective of the survey is to research the perceptions of the members, evangelists and institution leaders in the formation and growth of the Christ Groups, especially, looking at the future of these Christ Groups. The Christ Groups selected for investigation are: Bagepalli, Hosadurga, Pavagada and Bijapur. India Every Home Crusade claimed to form these Christ Groups during a nationwide, systematic distribution of tracts. They were selected on a chronological and geographical basis. Chronologically, Bagepalli represents the earliest group of the movement, that is, in the late 1960s, Hosadurga in the late 1970s, Pavagada in the middle 1980s and Bijapur in the early 1990s. Geographically, the locations of these places in Karnataka State represent the four directions, that is, Bijapur in the North, Pavagada in the South- Central, Hosadurga in the West and Bagepalli in the East.

All the four Christ Groups are in the State of Karnataka where the study has taken place and they are under the supervision of the India Every Home Crusade, Bangalore, Karnataka branch. An IEHC branch opened in Bangalore in the year 1964 under the leadership of the late Mr. G. Guruprasad. IEHC claims that it has twice systematically completed the distribution of tracts to every accessible home in Karnataka.

At present, IEHC is engaged in carrying out many other programmes, conducting prayer seminars, literacy and distribution work. So, IEHC’s focus has moved from the formation of Christ Groups to other interests of the ministry, as mentioned above. IEHC continues its connection with WLC (now EHC-I, that is, Every Home for Christ-International), which is the main donor. IEHC, on a national level, has its main office in Hyderabad and its branches are spread out in many States of India. One such office functions in Bangalore, Karnataka. These regional offices are operated by the local leaders. The person who heads the main office is the National Director and those who are in-charge of branch offices are the Regional Directors or the Regional Managers. The national director, while representing the country, also serves on the international board of WLC to give advice or suggestions, especially in matters concerning overseas ministry.

The purpose of the study is to see how and why the relational context plays a major role in forming Christ Groups and their continuation. Are there any other factors related to this relational context? The following hypotheses were investigated in this study: First, why and how did the members of Christ Groups respond to the printed message of the Gospel in families that was meant to appeal to the individual? What are the factors that influenced or were involved in this process? Second, did the people coming to Christ change their names, dress and family pattern so that they could be called Christians by the Christian Church at large? What are the theological and doctrinal positions Christ Groups need to adopt for them to be called Christian Churches? How do the members of Christ Groups see themselves in the Christ Groups and work towards their development, along with their own spiritual and other needs?

The study covers the period from 1978-98. In the year 1978, the Hosadurga Christ Group was formed and, during this time, Lee also speaks about his vision of ‘Baby Churches’. The year 1998 suggests WLC and IEHC had finally moved away from giving any emphasis to the Christ Groups movement. These were the years of the Christ Groups movement when IEHC placed much emphasis on this movement.

An earlier assumption in the research process was that apart from the relational aspect, tracts, follow-up work and seekers conferences played some role in the formation of Christ Groups. As the research developed, the main assumption was challenged as further evidence emerged. Therefore, I examined the role of the tract, follow up work, and seekers conference to determine the role they played in the formation of Christ groups. The evidence became clearer that an entirely different process was at work, a process that linked with but was distant from the WLC’s tract distribution. This required a field research into the cultures and religious backgrounds of the Christ Groups.

The study sheds light on the perceived ambiguity and tactical moves of WLC’s leadership in their relationship to Christ Groups. It also reveals the dual role of Indian leadership in relation to WLC and Christ Groups. Moreover, the research provides important information for understanding how the members of Christ Groups viewed themselves and took active participation in the Groups and society.

The research is one of the first social science applications to Christ Groups in India, especially in the case of Karnataka State. I conducted personal interviews with the members of four Christ Groups, the national leaders of IEHC and with the WLC leaders including the founder of WLC, Dr. McAlister. The research provides insights into Christian Missions to evaluate their means, methods, approaches, while engaging with the rural Indian populace. The research suggests that Christian missions need to take the relational context seriously, especially in reaching the rural populace. It also makes suggestions for the Indian leadership to play their role in an appropriate way rather than trying to play a dual role to please their masters, on the one hand, and themselves, on the other. Since I was once an insider, my experience with the mission and sources used in the research will make them accessible for future scholarship.

Chapter one begins with the introduction of the background and main focus of the research. The second chapter sketches the development of mass evangelism, especially under the influence of modernity. The third chapter contains the history of the World Literature Crusade, its ethos, means, methods and failures. Chapter four discusses the dilemma of the Indian leadership over mass evangelism and Christ Groups movement. Chapter five describes the beginnings, formation and development of Christ Groups, and also their comparison in the light of other such movements. Chapter six is divided into two sections: section ‘A’ is on the field survey which explains the methodology of the research describing how both quantitative and qualitative methods are used and looks at other contributory factors influencing the growth of the Christ Group movement; section ‘B’, as a part of the field study, is a case study on Hosadurga Christ Group, of how the Christ Groups are formed, established and continued and also how their past religious context played a role in this process. Chapter seven is divided into three sections, which present the research results. Chapter eight concludes by discussing the study results and its implications and future research recommendations.

¹ Everybody 1994 A Report

² McGavran, Donald, 1976, Everybody, 10

³ The relational context sometimes called the cyclical worldview, finds its roots in tribal cultures. It is intuitive, timeless oriented and fluid

⁴ Illich, Ivan, 1974, ‘Toward A Relevant Missiology’, 6ff.

Bosch, David J. 2006 (1991) Transforming Mission, 620620

⁵ Camilleri, Natalino, Introduction to Missiology

⁶ Walls, Andrew F., 2002, ‘Missologist of the Road’, The Cross-Cultural Process In Christian History, 273

⁷ ben@studentglobalimpact.com. Elwell, W. Evangelical Dictionaryof Theology

⁸ Jongeneel, Jan, A.B., (1995) 2006 Conclusion and Perspective, Missiological Encyclopedia, Part II, 427

⁹ Pickett, J. W., 1933, Christian Mass Movements in India

¹⁰ McGavran, Donald Anderson, 1988 (1970,1980), Understanding Church Growth

Chapter 2

An Overview of Mass-Evangelism as an Expression of Modernity and Western Mission of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

Evangelism, Mass Evangelism and Its Development

Evangelism¹ is good news or gospel. The word ‘gospel’ is the equivalent of the Greek word, ‘euangelion’ or ‘evangel’ in English.² In the New Testament, it denotes the good tidings of the Kingdom of God, and of salvation through Christ, by faith in His expiatory death, His burial, resurrection, and ascension. The act of the evangel is called ‘evangelize’, in Greek it is ‘euangelizo’³, which means to bring, announce or proclaim. The process of this evangelization or proclamation is evangelism. John Stott makes a distinction between ‘the meaning of evangelism’ and ‘the aim of evangelism’. He states that evangelism is to preach the gospel and the aim of evangelism is to win or bring people to Christ.⁴

Ralph Winter defines three concepts in evangelism: E-1, E-2, and E-3. E-1 evangelism is sharing the gospel with others of the same language and culture as oneself. E-2 evangelism is seeking to reach people of a similar language or culture, and E-3 evangelism is a cross-cultural work.⁵ In short, evangelism is proclamation of the good news of Jesus Christ to every creature that has not experienced rebirth in Christ. According to John Stott, they need to hear or hear better.⁶

The premise of evangelism is based upon the life and teaching of Jesus Christ. ‘Good News’ means to proclaim, because Jesus himself as an Evangelist⁷, brought good tidings to people. The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news… (Lk 4:18). Jesus commanded His disciples to become the bearers of good news. Go ye into all the world and preach the gospel to the whole creation (Mk 16:15). The act of proclamation is an obedience of Jesus’ disciples to His command. This is vital to their life and testimony. Proclamation is through various forms: personal-evangelism, child-evangelism, youth-evangelism, mass-evangelism and so on.

Mass-evangelism⁸ is a form of evangelism designed to reach the masses. Bryan Green defines mass-evangelism as an attempt to reach a number of people at one time by the preaching of the Gospel.⁹

The common notion behind this strategy is, ‘Why one, when thousands are passing by? There are other factors, like the imminent return of Christ (that this gospel of the kingdom will be preached in the whole world as a testimony to all nations, then the end will come, Mt. 24:14) which brought the idea of ‘World Evangelization’. The population explosion brought a sense of urgency. Technological advancement brought more openness to preach the gospel in different cultures and countries.

John Wesley was a firm believer in reaching the masses. Dr. Skevington Wood makes these comments in, ‘The Burning Heart’: ‘Once John Wesley had been convinced of the value of field-preaching,¹⁰ it became noticeable how field preaching immediately assumed priority and became central to his schedule. Throughout the long years of evangelizing, he kept commenting on the value of field-preaching and said, For usefulness, there is none comparable to it, and I knew of no other way of preaching the gospel to every creature. His goal was a mission to the masses’.¹¹ John MacGregor, the founder of Open-Air Mission suggests, ‘Christian people must go out to the masses and reach them on their own ground with the message of salvation’.¹²

From the time of Jesus, various forms of mass-evangelism have reached the masses, for example: open-air preaching, evangelistic campaigns or crusades, and mass-media evangelism. Open-air preaching reaches people wherever they are. In John MacGregor’s words, ‘reach them on their own ground’.¹³ This iswhere the crowds gather, especially in market places, parks, and on busy streets and beaches. Evangelistic campaigns or Crusades are usually in a neutral place¹⁴ in a city. Mostly they are inter-denominational. These campaigns are held for longer periods, from one week to eight weeks. Mass-media evangelism includes print (literature), radio, television and satellite. These are impersonal methods of evangelism, but are effective.

Abbe Michonneau, in ‘Revolution in a City Parish,’ observes that to speak of mass evangelism is in the strictest sense inaccurate, for, although the term is convenient, there can be no such thing as mass evangelism’.¹⁵ Likewise, the development of mass-evangelism can be divided into two parts: 1. Pre-modern mass-evangelism, 2. Modern and Post-modern mass- evangelism.

Pre-modern¹⁶ mass-evangelism is evident from the time of Jesus to modern times. On many occasions, Jesus spoke to large crowds. He once used a fisherman’s boat as His pulpit and the crowd on the sea-shore listened to His message ‘He got into one of the boats, the one belonging to Simon, and asked him to put out a little from shore. Then he sat down and taught the people from the boat’. (Lk 5:3). The Apostles spoke not only in the synagogues, but preached in the streets, market places and auditoria or wherever people were found. ‘So he reasoned in the synagogue with the Jews and the God-fearing Greeks, as well as in the market-place day by day with those who happened to be there’ Acts 17:1. ‘(Paul) had discussions daily in the lecture hall of Tyrannus’ Acts 19:9.

A second century account describes an event where a man went to hear a notable Christian from Palestine, who was staying in Alexandria and preaching the good news to the crowd.¹⁷ In the thirteenth century, the begging and singing preachers went about with bare feet, a coarse serge frock, and a girdle of rope around their waist¹⁸ and preached the gospel to the masses. The early missionaries to Bulgaria, Moravia and Bohemia carried great pictures with them, which formed the texts of their sermons,¹⁹ and preached the good news to crowds..

Modern and post-modern (see footnote 24) mass-evangelism can be traced from the time of the Enlightenment until now. During this period, the revolutionary changes in ideas took place and they affected society throughout the centuries. Modernity’s replacement of ‘top down’ Godcentred living with ‘bottom-up’ human-centred living represents a titanic revolution in human history and experience. It is basically an economic and technological transformation.

The Christian elements in modernity are as follows: All humans are created in God’s image and have great value and worth. Each individual is called to personal faith, and to exercise responsibility in a continuous walk of sanctification, in comparison to modernity’s emphases on free, rational choice and humanistic self-actualization.

To note some similarities between Christian faith and modernity:

1. God is the universal ruler who governs the natural world in an orderly way and judges all peoples with equity. Modernity holds that both nature and society are governed by uniform, impartial laws.

2. The NT teaches that each Church member has a distinct, valuable role. Everyone has a voice and participation. Modernity holds the ideal of democracy.

3. In the Biblical view, history has a linear, positive direction. God’s purposes are gradually revealed through history. They transform people and nations and come to completion at the end. Modernity emphasises ethnological, that is, transformation of the world or human race.

4. Scripture emphasises the global mission of God’s people, which will bring together people from all nations, tongues, races, and tribes. Modernity emphasizes universal conquest by its influence and following.

The Christian mission under the influence of modernity developed a worldview that perceived other cultures as primitive and pagan. It saw itself as a tool of modernization.²⁰ From the late eighteenth to twentieth century, mass-evangelism became one of the main Western missionary enterprises. In the eighteenth century, John Wesley and George Whitefield effectively used mass-evangelism. Field preaching was central to their ministry. Methodism grew out of it. John Wesley and George Whitefield along with their mass evangelistic approach strongly emphasized discipleship. They took their converts to church and nurtured them in the Word of God.

From the eighteenth to twentieth centuries, the world saw a great advancement in technology and communications. These technological advancements and inventions created more openness among the masses. The use of modern media in decentralized forms opened up traditional closed societies, and even centralized totalitarian states. This openness meant Christians faced the greatest opportunity to reach masses more effectively. In this period, American evangelicals used modern culture to its maximum effect in reaching masses with the gospel.

American Mass-Evangelism

The United States as the world’s ‘first new nation’ and American mass-evangelism as Protestantism’s ‘first new tradition’ both have features of modern culture that are constitutive of their very character and identity (for example, pluralism in the case of America and a reliance on technique in the case of mass-evangelism). This close affinity is an advantage because America and American mass-evangelism have prospered at the cutting edge of modern culture.

Andrew Walls sees the Americans’ ability in invention and perfecting them.²¹ He calls it ‘first-rate technology’²². Uchimura observes ‘it is their national characteristic’.²³ Americans have a deep historically rooted belief in the benefits of technology, starting even before the invention of mass-media. Walt Whitman, an American poet, in the nineteenth century, in his poem, ‘Passage to India’ wrote:

Worship new I sing

You captains, voyagers, explorers, yours,

You engineers, you architects, machinists, yours,

You not for trade or transportation only,

But in God’s name, and for thy sake O soul²⁴

Rufus Anderson, in 1837, speaking on ‘The Time for the World’s Conversion Come’ saw that world conquest was now possible because of the scale at which technological advancement and global market expansion during that period. He said, ‘Never till now, did the social condition of mankind render it possible to organise the army’s requisite for the world’s spiritual conquest’.²⁵ The whole climate of American Christian thinking was conditioned by expansion.²⁶ Zeal for world evangelization went in hand in hand with the use of innovative methods of marketing. To win the greatest number of converts at the least expense became their constant endeavour.²⁷ The nineteenth century Christian movement along the frontier and the evangelization of new cities brought new concepts in American mass-evangelism. D. L. Moody in the nineteenth century and Billy Graham in the twentieth century used and developed these concepts in mass-evangelism.

D. L. Moody’s passion for winning more souls, allied with an uncommon tact, led him to adopt a new technique in mass-evangelism. ‘Moody daringly used theatres and public halls, large choirs, popular solos and choruses, and the Inquiry Room with its army of workers to deal individually with the seekers, as methods of reaching the masses’.²⁸ Moody, before he became an itinerant evangelist, was an energetic, successful businessman. He had developed his skills in organization, publicity, fund raising and motivation. Speaking about Moody’s business skills, McLoughlin comments, ‘Moody brought to urban mass evangelism the sales and managerial techniques that were transforming the American economy’.²⁹

Gordon observes that Moody’s preaching and Sankey’s singing was spectacularly effective.³⁰ Findlay remarks that ‘Moody and …Sankey, …updated evangelism’s idiom through their sentimental stories and gospel ballads, calling the weary sinner who had lost his or her way in urban America to accept the tender Saviour’s invitation to come home’.³¹ But, Kent remarks, Moody’s and Sankey’s primary intention was to lead people to their personal salvation.³² Though Moody’s use of modern business skills in mass-evangelism brought displeasure from conservative English and Scots religionists, he considered that he had urgent business to do for the Lord and that was to save the lost souls somehow, including in the power of God.

Billy Graham is the twentieth century’s most world-renowned mass-evangelist. He used every mass-communication media to preach the gospel. From conducting ‘Crusades’ to relay through ‘Satellite’ he wanted to reach the masses. His team uses a familiar phrase, ‘High Touch through Hi-Tech’ to describe their use of high technology in proclamation. Graham grew up in a culture that trusted in modern technology in saving souls. Graham, when he was a teenager, developed sales techniques. Aikman remarks that in 1936, when Graham was a teenager he developed business