Opto-mechanical Fiber Optic Sensors: Research, Technology, and Applications in Mechanical Sensing

Opto-Mechanical Fiber Optic Sensors

Research, Technology, and Applications in Mechanical Sensing

Editor

Hamid Alemohammad

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Biography

Preface

1. Opto-Mechanical Modeling of Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

1.1. Fiber Bragg Gratings

1.2. Opto-Mechanical Properties of Optical Fibers

1.3. Fiber Bragg Gratings With Structurally and Thermally Induced Index Changes

1.4. Light Propagation in Optical Fibers With Induced Optical Anisotropy

1.5. Coupled-Mode Theory

1.6. Derivation of Coupled-Mode Theory for Fiber Bragg Gratings With Uniform Grating

1.7. Coupled-Mode Theory for Superstructure Fiber Bragg Gratings

Appendices

2. Superstructure Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors for Multiparameter Sensing

2.1. Superstructure Fiber Bragg Gratings With Periodic On-Fiber Films

2.2. Opto-Mechanical Modeling

2.3. Simulation Results

2.4. Geometrical Features of Fabricated Superstructure Fiber Bragg Gratings With On-Fiber Films

2.5. Measurement Test Rig

2.6. Optical Response Analysis

3. Flat-Cladding Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors for Large Strain Amplitude Fatigue Tests

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Experiments

3.3. Sensor Validation Results

3.4. Application in the Fatigue Test of a Friction Stir–Welded Aluminum Alloy

3.5. Application in Asymmetric Fatigue Deformation of a Magnesium Alloy

3.6. Conclusions

4. Fiber Bragg Grating Strain Sensor for Microstructure in Situ Strain Measurement and Real-Time Failure Detection

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Fiber Bragg Grating Basics and Sensor Fabrication

4.3. Comparison of Cantilever Strain Measured by a Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor and a Strain Gauge

4.4. Printed Circuit Board Assembly Test Sample Preparation for Bend Testing

4.5. Strain Gauge A and Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor Installation on Assembly Packages

4.6. Comparison of Ball Grid Array Substrate Strain Results by Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor Array and Finite Element Analysis Modeling

4.7. Four-Point Bending System and Test Setup

4.8. Dye-and-Pry Failure Visual Inspection

4.9. Test Results and Discussion

4.10. Conclusions

5. Distributed Brillouin Sensing Using Polymer Optical Fibers

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Characterization of Brillouin Scattering in Polymer Optical Fibers

5.3. Distributed Measurement

5.4. Polymer Optical Fiber Fuse

5.5. Conclusion

6. Femtosecond Laser-Inscribed Fiber Bragg Gratings for Sensing Applications

6.1. Introduction

6.2. The Fiber Bragg Grating

6.3. The Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor

6.4. Femtosecond Laser-Induced Bragg Gratings

6.5. Applications of Femtosecond Laser-Induced Fiber Bragg Gratings for Sensing

6.6. Conclusions

7. Innovative Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors for Highly Demanding Applications: Considerations, Concepts, and Designs

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor System

7.3. High-Demand Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor System Performance

7.4. Fiber Bragg Grating–Based Sensors for Dedicated Operational Conditions

7.5. Fiber Bragg Grating–Based Sensors for Special Physical Parameters

8. Fiber Optic Sensors in the Oil and Gas Industry: Current and Future Applications

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Breakdown of the Oil and Gas Industry

8.3. Thermal Monitoring

8.4. Pressure Monitoring in the Downhole Environment

8.5. Flow Monitoring

8.6. Seismic Monitoring

8.7. Acoustic Monitoring

8.8. Future Directions

9. Aerospace Applications of Optical Fiber Mechanical Sensors

9.1. Introduction and Background

9.2. Measurements for Flight Control

9.3. Overview

9.4. Concluding Remarks

10. Fiber Optical Sensors in Biomechanics

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Why Fiber Optical Sensors in Biomechanics?

10.3. Applications in Biomechanics of Rigid Bodies

10.4. Applications in Biomechanics of Deformable Bodies

10.5. Applications in Biomechanics of Fluids

10.6. Final Remarks

11. Fiber Optic Sensors for Biomedical Applications

11.1. Introduction

11.2. Biomedical Fiber Optic Sensor Systems

11.3. Optical Fiber Sensors for Diagnostics

11.4. Optical Fiber Sensors for Robotic Microsurgery

11.5. Smart Textiles and Wearable Sensors

Index

Copyright

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List of Contributors

Hamid Alemohammad,     AOMS Technologies Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada

Christopher Baldwin,     Weatherford, Laurel, MD, United States

Lun-Kai Cheng,     TNO, Delft, The Netherlands

Xija Gu,     Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada

Neisei Hayashi,     Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan

Iulian Iordachita,     Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States

Antonio B. Lobo Ribeiro,     University Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal

Craig Lopatin,     Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel

Hua Lu,     Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada

Stephen J. Mihailov,     National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Yosuke Mizuno,     Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan

Kentaro Nakamura,     Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan

Sven Poeggel,     University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Paulo Roriz

Institute University of Maia (ISMAI), Maia, Portugal

INESC TEC, Porto, Portugal

LABIOMEP, Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Porto, Portugal

CIDESD-ISMAI, CIDESD, Maia, Portugal

Emiliano Schena,     Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy

Peter Martijn Toet,     TNO, Delft, The Netherlands

Daniele Tosi,     Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan

Biography

Hamid Alemohammad, PhD, PEng, is the cofounder and CEO of AOMS Technologies Inc. Dr. Alemohammad has PhD in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Waterloo in Ontario, Canada. He is specialized in industrial and academic research on fiber optic sensors along with the commercialization of fiber optic sensor technologies for harsh environment and industrial sensing applications.

Preface

The 1960s was a turning point for the fiber optic industry following the breakthrough discovery by Charles Kao (2009 Nobel Prize Laureate in Physics) and George Hockham from Standard Telecommunication Laboratories in England on reducing the loss in glass fibers by removing impurities. In the following decade, the work conducted by scientists at Corning and Bell Laboratories resulted in the development of a scalable mass production process for the manufacturing of low-loss optical fibers, which are now widely deployed to transmit voice and data over long distances.

Optical fibers, which are a commodity for the telecommunications industry, have found their way into the sensing industry. In the early days, fiber optic sensor technology was adopted only by the oil and gas and defense sectors, because of the relatively high cost of the technology. However, thanks to new advancements in the development of low-cost optoelectronic systems, the technology is finding niche markets in other industry sectors including biomedical, environmental, transportation, structural health monitoring, and process industries. The industrial adoption of fiber optic sensors stems from unique features and technical capabilities unmatched by electronic sensors; these features include low-loss remote sensing, the ability to work in harsh environments, immunity to electromagnetic interference, small size, and capability of integrated and distributed sensing. The numbers of patents and scholarly articles published in the area of fiber optic sensing, new companies commercializing state-of-art fiber optic sensor technologies, and research and development (R&D) investments by renowned research centers indicate the global growth of this technology. According to the market research report Fiber Optic Sensors: Global Markets published by BCC Research in 2017, the global market size for fiber optic sensors is projected to reach $3.2  billion by 2021 from $2.0  billion in 2016 with a 5-year compound annual growth rate of around 10%. The world-class research on specialty optical fiber sensors (i.e., polymer fibers, photonic crystal fibers, femtosecond written fiber Bragg gratings, etc.) and the development of low-cost and affordable optical fiber sensor interrogators are the primary drivers for the adoption of the technology and emergence of new use cases for fiber optic sensing.

This book relays state-of-the-art research results and prospective advances in the field of fiber optic sensing with emphasis on opto-mechanical sensing applications. It is a consolidated collection of contributions by researchers in academia, research centers, and industrial R&D departments. The book aims at agglomerating recent research into one single source that is accessible to a wide range of audience. It provides a reference source for R&D engineers, scientists, application engineers, and technical managers in industries relevant to test and measurement and for university faculty members, postdoctoral fellows, and graduate students practicing research in various engineering and applied science disciplines.

Hamid Alemohammad,     AOMS Technologies, Inc., Toronto, Canada

1

Opto-Mechanical Modeling of Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

Hamid Alemohammad     AOMS Technologies Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada

Abstract

This chapter is focused on the theory and opto-mechanical modeling of fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs). The chapter includes the opto-mechanical properties of optical fibers, induced optical anisotropy in optical fibers caused by temperature and structural loading, light propagation in optically anisotropic optical fibers, and the coupled-mode theory of the spectral response of FBGs. In addition, the theory of superstructure FBGs is elaborated at the end of the chapter.

Keywords

Coupled-mode theory; Fiber Bragg gratings; Opto-mechanical modeling; Superstructure fiber Bragg gratings

1.1. Fiber Bragg Gratings

Fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) are permanent modulations of the index of refraction in optical fibers. An FBG with a submicrometer periodic modulation of the index of refraction functions as the filter. When a Bragg grating is exposed to a broadband spectrum of light, the guided light wave propagating along the optical fiber is scattered by each grating plane. As a result, parts of the spectrum at specific wavelengths are reflected back. The coupling between the forward and the backward propagating modes results in a resonance condition. The resonance occurs at a specific wavelength called the Bragg wavelength (λB). Wavelengths not coincident with the Bragg condition degenerate progressively with weak reflections, whereas wavelengths close to the resonance wavelength determined by the Bragg condition undergo strong reflections. and the grating parameters, as defined in the Bragg condition [1,2]

(1.1)

is the grating pitch length.

Typically, the modulation of the index of refraction [Δn(z)] along the fiber axis for a Bragg grating is expressed as [3]

(1.2)

is the spatially averaged index change along the fiber, νf is the fringe visibility, Φ(z) is the grating chirp determining the variations of the grating pitch length along the fiber, and the z direction is coincident with the fiber axis.

Figure 1.1  Spectral response of a uniform fiber Bragg grating.

1.2. Opto-Mechanical Properties of Optical Fibers

The index of refraction in silica, which is a dielectric material, is a function of the applied strain and temperature. Owing to photoelastic and thermooptic effects, strain and temperature induce changes in the index of refraction [4]. Fig. 1.2 shows a dielectric medium (Ω) exposed to temperature and strain distributions, T(x,y,z) and ei(x,y,z), respectively, in the xyz coordinates. The index of refraction tensor in dielectric materials in the Cartesian coordinates is given by

Figure 1.2  Dielectric material under temperature and strain distributions.

(1.3)

Because the tensor is symmetric, it is represented by six elements as follows:

(1.4)

The photoelastic and thermooptic effects are defined by introducing a dielectric impermeability tensor ([B]) [4], where

(1.5)

By neglecting the second-order terms, the change in the impermeability tensor (ΔBi), due to the applied strain (photoelastic effect) and temperature (thermooptic effect), is obtained by [5,6]

(1.6)

where [p] is the strain-optic tensor, called Pockels' photoelastic constant. For an isotropic material, [p] is expressed as

(1.7)

ej's are the elements of the strain tensor,

(1.8)

and Qi is defined as

(1.9)

where

(1.10)

For optically isotropic materials,

(1.11)

where ∂n/∂T is constant, and αj's are the coefficient of thermal expansion of the dielectric material. For isotropic materials,

(1.12)

The substitution of Eqs. (1.11) and (1.12) in Eq. (1.6) leads to

(1.13)

, Eq. (1.13) is written as

(1.14)

Eqs. (1.13) and (1.14) show that structural loads and temperature variations applied to optical fibers induce optical anisotropy, changing the index of refraction. Because the dielectric constant is a function of the index of refraction, the strain/temperature-induced optical anisotropy affects the propagation of the light wave in the dielectric material.

1.3. Fiber Bragg Gratings With Structurally and Thermally Induced Index Changes

Optical anisotropy induced by external loads and temperature variations causes changes in the spectral response of FBGs. Assume that an FBG is subject to a uniform temperature change (ΔT) and a strain field with principal components e1, e2, and e3, where e1 is in the direction of the grating vector, and e2 and e2 are the transverse strain components, as shown in Fig. 1.3. Accordingly, the nonzero components of the index of refraction along the principle axes are n1, n2, and n3.

satisfies nclad  <  neff  <  ncore. Therefore, the modified effective mode index of refraction for the optical fiber exposed to strain components or temperature variations can be approximated as neff  ≈  n2 or neff  ≈  n3, where n2 and n3 are the transverse components of the index of refraction in the optical fiber. If e2  ≠  e). By substituting n2 and nin Eq. (1.14), the changes in the effective modes index of refraction are given by

Figure 1.3  Fiber Bragg grating subject to strain field.

(1.15)

The change in the Bragg wavelength (ΔλB) in FBGs, in terms of the variations in neff under uniform elongation and temperature variations, is expressed as [2]

(1.16)

which can be rewritten as

(1.17)

 =  e. By substituting Eq. (1.15) in Eq. (1.17),

(1.18)

is called birefringence, as shown in Fig. 1.4A. Because it is caused by external loads, it is also known as stress-induced birefringence. If the transverse components are equal (e2  =  e3), there is no peak splitting (Fig. 1.4B), and Eq. (1.18) is reduced to

(1.19)

Figure 1.4  Fiber Bragg grating ( FBG ) reflectivity and the Bragg wavelength shift. (A) Unequal transverse strain components causing birefringence and (B) equal transverse strain components.

1.4. Light Propagation in Optical Fibers With Induced Optical Anisotropy

The general form of light propagation in a dielectric material is obtained from Maxwell's equations as follows [7]:

(1.20)

Considering a time-harmonic solution, Maxwell's equations can be reformulated as

(1.21)

where E, D, H, and B are electric field, electric displacement, magnetic field, and magnetic induction, respectively. ε and μ are electric permittivity and magnetic permeability of the dielectric material. Through this study, it is assumed that the material is only electrically anisotropic; the anisotropy is caused only by the index of refraction, and the magnetic permeability of the medium (μ) is constant and equal to that of free space. In the general form, the dielectric tensor [ε] is written as

(1.22)

where ε0 is the free space electric permittivity. The considered Cartesian coordinates xyz are shown in Fig. 1.5.

By taking the curl of the first equation in Eq. (1.20) and substituting from the second Maxwell's equation,

(1.23)

By expanding Eq. (1.23),

Figure 1.5  Cartesian coordinates for an optical fiber.

(1.24)

The solution is written as

(1.25)

where β is the propagation constant. By substituting Eq. (1.25) into Eq. (1.24),

(1.26)

where

(1.27)

The dielectric tensor in an anisotropic material is expressed as

(1.28)

Three principal axes can be found in such a way that the dielectric tensor becomes diagonal as follows:

(1.29)

where nx, ny, and nz are the indices of refraction in the direction of the principal axes, assuming that x, y, and z are the principal directions.

By substituting D  =  εE in the third Maxwell's equation,

(1.30)

and

(1.31)

Substitution of Eq. (1.30) in Eq. (1.26) returns

(1.32)

(1.33)

where

(1.34)

Eqs. (1.32) and (1.33) are eigenvalue problems that are solved to find the propagation constants βi, which are the solutions of the eigenvalue problem. The effective mode index of refraction for the iis defined by

(1.35)

Eqs. (1.32) and (1.33) are planar partial differential equations (PDEs), and should be solved in the cross section (xy plane) of the optical fiber. A given length of fiber (L) is divided into small longitudinal segments with length Δz, as shown in Fig. 1.6. The solution of the light propagation PDE results in the effective mode index of refraction at each wavelength along the fiber (neff(λ,z)).

Figure 1.6  (A) Optical fiber divided into longitudinal segments for (B) surface normal unit vectors.

The length of the subsections (Δz) should be chosen appropriately. Smaller values of Δz yield more accurate results. However, the selection depends on the desired resolution and strain or temperature gradients along the fiber. If the variations in strain and temperature along the fiber are large, smaller values of Δz should be selected.

The boundary conditions for Eqs. (1.32) and (1.33) are

(1.36)

which implies that at the core-cladding interface, the tangential components of the electric fields and the normal components of the displacement fields are continuous. At the periphery of the optical fiber, the boundary condition is

(1.37)

are the surface normal unit vector.

There is no analytical solution for anisotropic optical fibers; as a result, numerical methods such as the finite element method can be used to solve the PDEs. However, a closed-form analytical solution can be derived for a load-free optical fiber that is optically isotropic [7]. The finite element method formulation to find the effective mode index of refraction for an FBG exposed to nonuniform axial strain is presented in Appendix A.

1.5. Coupled-Mode Theory

The coupled-mode theory is a useful tool for the quantitative analysis of the spectral response of FBGs. Considering a dielectric medium with a dielectric tensor perturbation Δε, the optical waves propagate in an infinite number of modes. According to the coupled-mode theory (Appendix B), the infinitesimal variation of amplitude Am of the mth mode, denoted by dAm, due to the coupling with the lth mode in the region between z and z  +  dz is

(1.38)

where Kml is the coupling coefficient between the lth and the mth modes, defined by

(1.39)

Eq. (1.38) is a set of coupled differential equations describing the coupling between an infinite number of modes.

Based on the direction of the propagating mode, the coupling can be codirectional, in which the modes propagate in the same direction, or contradirectional, in which the modes propagate in opposite directions.

1.6. Derivation of Coupled-Mode Theory for Fiber Bragg Gratings With Uniform Grating

In FBGs, the mode coupling occurs between two contradirectional core modes, as shown in Fig. 1.7 [3].

As a result, the coupled-mode Eq. (1.38) can be simplified to

(1.40)

Figure 1.7  Forward and backward modes in fiber Bragg gratings.

(1.41)

where A1(z) and A2(z) are the amplitudes of the forward and backward propagating modes, respectively. Because FBG is a periodic modulation of the index of refraction, the perturbation in the dielectric tensor (Δε) is written as

(1.42)

By assuming small variations in the index of refraction,

(1.43)

where Δn is described by

(1.44)

. Δn can also be expressed as

(1.45)

By substituting Eq. (1.45) into Eq. (1.39), Kml is rewritten as

(1.46)

For two contradirectional modes with propagation constants β1 and β2 in an FBG,

(1.47)

Eq. (1.46) is used to obtain K11, K12, K21, and K22. By substituting them in Eq. (1.40),

(1.48)

From the orthogonality of the propagating modes [8],

(1.49)

By substituting Eq. (1.49) into Eq. (1.48),

(1.50)

where

(1.51)

and

(1.52)

is not constant along the fiber and can vary. As a result, the coupling coefficients Kdc and KAC are not constant along apodized gratings.

The net variation in amplitude ΔA1(z) over a distance L, which is much larger than the grating period and much smaller than the variation scale of the amplitude, is

(1.53)

According to (z)  =  0), it is evident that 2π ≠  0 and β  ≠  0. Thus, one of the following conditions should be satisfied:

(1.54)

(1.55)

Because β is a positive number, Eq. (1.54) cannot be satisfied; therefore, the only condition is Eq. (1.55). Eq. (1.55) is called the phase matching condition, describing the resonance in the coupling of the propagating modes [8]. The Bragg condition in FBGs is obtained directly from Eq. (1.55):

(1.56)

Substitution of β  =  kneff in Eq. (1.56) results in the Bragg condition:

(1.57)

Eliminating the vanishing terms from Eq. (1.50) results in

(1.58)

In the same way, Eq. (1.41) can be simplified to

(1.59)

Eqs. (1.58) and (1.59) are further simplified by assuming that

(1.60)

(1.61)

where

(1.62)

The substitution of Eqs. (1.60) and (1.61) in Eqs. (1.58) and (1.59) results in

(1.63)

and

(1.64)

Eq. (1.64) can be rewritten as

(1.65)

Eq. (1.64) is a set of first-order differential equations describing the spectral response of FBGs. To find the reflectivity of an FBG, Eq. (1.64) is solved with specific boundary conditions. For an FBG with length L, Eqs. (1.64) and (1.65) can be integrated from L/2 to −L/2 with the following boundary conditions [3]:

(1.66)

After integration, the reflectivity of the FBG at each wavelength (r(λ)) is

(1.67)

1.7. Coupled-Mode Theory for Superstructure Fiber Bragg Gratings

) varies periodically along the optical fiber with a period of Γ, which is larger than the original gratings, as shown in can be induced in the grating during the writing process or by the deposition of on-fiber thin films with periodic geometrical features, i.e., the periodic variation in the thickness along the grating [9,10]. If the FBG with periodic on-fiber thin films is exposed to variations in temperature or structural loadings, periodic strain components are formed along the grating. This leads to periodic variations in the index of refraction due to the photoelastic and thermooptic effects in dielectric materials.

Figure 1.8 along the fiber for a uniform grating.

in FBGs with uniform grating profiles can be described by a Fourier series as follows:

(1.68)

where ak's are constants. In apodized gratings the periodicity is applied on the initial Gaussian or cosine grating profile.

By substituting Eq. (1.68) in Eqs. (1.51)–(1.53) the procedures for nonvanishing exponential terms in the previous section can be followed to obtain the phase matching conditions for SFBGs. The exponential components for SFBGs are

(1.69)

By considering β  >  0 and Γ , conditions 1, 3, and 5 cannot be satisfied. As a result, the phase matching conditions are

(1.70)

(1.71)

(1.72)

where Eq. (1.70) is the same as the Bragg condition and Eqs. (1.71) and (1.72) are the new conditions associated with the SFBG. Accordingly, the resonance wavelengths are obtained as follows:

(1.73)

According to Eq. (1.73), the resonances occur on the sides of the main Bragg wavelength (λB)) is equal to

(1.74)

 ≫  k , and using λ0  =  2neff , Eq. (1.74) can be written as

(1.75)

As a result, the wavelength spacing of the resonance peaks (Δλ) in an SFBG is expressed as

(1.76)

. A typical reflection spectrum of an SFBG is plotted in Fig. 1.9. The reflectivity of the sidebands is obtained by solving the coupled-mode equations for SFBGs.

Figure 1.9 .

Appendices

A. Finite Element Method for Modeling Effective Mode Index of Refraction in Optically Anisotropic Fiber Optics

Finite element analysis (FEA) can be used to solve the light propagation PDEs and obtain the effective mode index of refraction in optical fibers. In the FEA, the optical fiber is divided into longitudinal segments. The cross section of the optical fiber is discretized to elements at each segment (Fig. 1.10), and the light propagation PDEs are solved at each cross section.

The triangular element is shown in Fig. 1.11. By defining the element local coordinates ξ, η, and ζ, the transformation to Cartesian coordinates is [11]

(1.77)

and the element shape function {N} is

(1.78)

Figure 1.10  Optical fiber divided into longitudinal segments and meshing of optical fiber cross section in COMSOL Multiphysics.

Figure 1.11  Triangular quadratic element.

The components of the electric field (Ex and Ey) are expressed as

(1.79)

Perpendicular Hybrid-Mode Wave physics was selected in COMSOL Multiphysics. The UMFPACK solver for mode analysis was chosen. This solver is a linear solver using the Gaussian elimination method.

To investigate the mesh independency and to find the optimum number of elements, several sample problems were solved with different numbers of elements. The variations in the eigenvalue (β) with increasing number of elements were studied. It was found that in the solutions, where the number of meshes was higher than 1280, the effect of the increasing mesh number on the final results was negligible.

Fig. 1.12 shows an FBG exposed to a linearly varying axial strain field. The modeling parameters for the glass fiber and the grating are listed in Table 1.1. The optical fiber is divided into longitudinal sections and the distribution of the index of refraction is obtained for each segment. The light propagation PDEs are solved using COMSOL Multiphysics and MATLAB to obtain the effective mode index of refraction along the fiber [neff(z)]. The effective mode index of refraction is shown in Fig. 1.13. As seen, the effective mode index of refraction decreases along the grating, which is attributed to the nonuniform strain distribution.

Figure 1.12  Fiber Bragg grating subject to linear nonuniform axial strain.

Table 1.1

Figure 1.13  Effective mode index of refraction along a fiber Bragg grating subject to linear nonuniform axial strain.

B. Derivation of Coupled-Mode Theory for Optical Fiber Gratings

Coupled-mode theory is a useful tool for the quantitative analysis of the spectral response of fiber gratings. In this theory, the grating is modeled as a periodic perturbation in the dielectric tensor of the medium in which light is propagating. The perturbed dielectric tensor is written as

(1.80)

where ε(x,y) is the unperturbed part of the dielectric tensor, and Δε(x,y,z) is the periodic perturbation