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    Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry
    Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry
    Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry
    Ebook1,040 pages11 hours

    Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

    By Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu and Alina Maria Holban

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    About this ebook

    The Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry, Volume 12 in The Handbook of Food Bioengineering series, explores how nanoscience applications in food engineering offer an alternative to satisfying current food needs that cannot be fulfilled by natural products. Nanotechnology enables the development of tailored food ingredients and structures to replace products that are difficult to obtain. The book discusses how specialized nano-preservatives, sensors and food degradation and contamination detectors were developed and how they can be introduced in food products without degrading quality or properties of the final product. A valuable resource for food engineering researchers and students alike.

    • Identifies common nanomaterials used in food preservation and food packaging
    • Provides industrial applications to increase food production
    • Describes analytical methods for assessing food safety
    • Identifies how nanoscience advances allow for new developments in functional foods and nutraceuticals
    • Discusses safety concerns, regulations and restricted use of nanomaterials in food bioengineering
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAcademic Press
    Release dateJan 20, 2018
    ISBN9780128114933
    Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

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      Book preview

      Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry - Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

      Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 12

      Edited by

      Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Alina Maria Holban

      Table of Contents

      Cover

      Title page

      Copyright

      List of Contributors

      Foreword

      Series Preface

      Preface for Volume 12: Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

      Chapter 1: Application of Nanotechnology in the Food Industry: Present Status and Future Prospects

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Classification of Nanomaterials

      3. Current and Prospective Applications of Nanotechnology in the Food Sector

      4. Food Safety and Toxic Effects of Nanotechnology

      5. Regulation- and Legislation-Related Aspect of Nanotechnology in the Dairy and Food Sectors

      6. Conclusions and Future Prospects

      Chapter 2: Nanotechnology: A Pioneering Rebellion for Food Diligence

      Abstract

      1. Nanotechnology: Science of the Very Small

      2. Food Nanotechnology: A Need-Based Approach

      3. Nanoencapsulation: A Way Forward Toward Targeted Nutrient Delivery

      4. Nanosensors: The Quality Monitoring Devices

      5. Nanobiocatalysts for Food Applications

      6. Nanopackaging: A New World of Possibilities

      7. Interactive and Innovative Foods

      8. Conclusions and Future Outlook

      Chapter 3: Implication of Nanoscience in the Food Processing and Agricultural Industries

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Manufacturing Techniques

      3. Nutrient Delivery

      4. Nutrient Technology

      5. Water Purification

      6. Nanoscience in the Agroindustry

      7. Food Processing

      8. Food Packaging

      9. Challenges Faced by the Products of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

      Chapter 4: Progress and Challenges of Nanotechnology in Food Engineering

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Prospects of Nanotechnology in the Food Industry

      3. Challenges

      4. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 5: Nanotechnology Trends in the Food Industry: Recent Developments, Risks, and Regulation

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Nanotechnology Applications in Food

      3. Current Status of Regulation of Nanomaterials in Food: Safety Regulations

      4. Conclusions, Prospects, and Challenges for the Future

      Chapter 6: Consumer’s Health and Regulatory Organizations

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Properties of Nanosystems Designed for the Food Industry

      3. Regulatory Institutions in European Union, United States, and Other Regions

      4. Important Parameters During the Regulation Approaches

      5. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 7: Functionalized Silica Nanomaterials as a New Tool for New Industrial Applications

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Encapsulation of Food Ingredients and Nutraceuticals in MSPs

      3. Mesoporous Materials as Antimicrobial Agents

      4. Mesoporous Materials as Sensors in Food

      5. Conclusions

      Chapter 8: Ecofriendly Synthesis of Metal/Metal Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Application in Food Packaging and Food Preservation

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Synthesis of Metal and Metal Oxide NPs: Ecofriendly Approach

      3. Properties of Metal/Metal Oxide NPs

      4. Metal/Metal Oxide NPs Used in Food Packaging Applications

      5. Metal/Metal Oxides NPs in Food Packaging Technology and Health Implications

      6. Summary and Conclusions

      Conflict of Interest

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 9: Significance of Nanotechnology for Sensing, Estimation, Degradation, and Formulation of Agrochemicals

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Agricultural Nanotechnology

      3. Nanomaterials in the Analysis of Agrochemicals

      4. Nanobiosensor as an Analytical Tool for Agrochemicals

      5. Nanosensors as Analytical Tools for Agrochemical Analysis

      6. Degradation of Agrochemicals by Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites

      7. Nanotechnology for Pest Control and Plant Nutrients

      8. Nanotoxicity

      9. Conclusions

      Chapter 10: Nanometals as Promoters of Nutraceutical Quality in Crop Plants

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Functions of Metals in Organisms

      3. Metals as Enzyme Cofactors

      4. Use of Metals to Increase Stress Tolerance and Nutraceutical Quality

      5. Application of Nanosized Metals in Plants

      6. Comparison of the Effect on Metals and Nanometals

      7. Application of Nanometals to Induce Phytochemicals With Nutraceutical Value and Stress Tolerance in Plants

      8. Environmental Mobility of Nanoparticles and Transfer Into the Food Chain

      9. Conclusions

      Chapter 11: Use of Nanotechnological Methods for the Analysis and Stability of Food Antioxidants

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Nanotechnological Methods for the Analysis of Antioxidants

      3. Nanotechnological Methods for Improving the Bioavailability of Food Antioxidants

      4. Nanoencapsulation of Flavonoids

      5. Nanoencapsulation of Phenolic Acids

      6. Nanoencapsulation of Carotenoids

      7. Nanoencapsulation of Vitamins

      8. Nanoencapsulation of Other Food Antioxidants

      9. Conclusions

      Chapter 12: Stabilized R-α-Lipoic Acid by Encapsulation Using Cyclodextrins

      Abstract

      1. Introduction: Structure and Physicochemical Properties of R-(+)-α-Lipoic Acid and Cyclodextrins

      2. Complex Formation of R-(+)-α-Lipoic Acid and Cyclodextrins

      3. Spectroscopic Studies on R-(+)-α-Lipoic Acid–Cyclodextrin Complexes

      4. Bioavailability and Health Benefits of R-(+)-α-Lipoic Acid–Cyclodextrin Complex

      5. Conclusions

      Chapter 13: Integrated Process Control for Result-Oriented Process Automation

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. What Sensor Technologies are Available and How are They Used?

      3. Sensors in the Environment/Utilities

      4. What Improvements are Possible by Using Digital Integration of Sensors and Actuators?

      5. System Validation and Predictive Action for Safe Every Day Processing

      6. Integration Into the Digital World, Internet of Things, Big Data, Industry 4.0

      7. Conclusions

      Acknowledgment

      Chapter 14: Electrospun Polymeric Nanofibers in Food Packaging

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Food Packaging

      3. Nanofibers Engineering

      4. Parameters That Affect the Electrospun Nanofibers Production

      5. Nanofiber Packaging Applied in Food

      6. Characterization Techniques

      7. Nanotechnology and Food Security

      8. Conclusions

      Chapter 15: Use of Nanoparticles in the Food Industry: Advances and Perspectives

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Synthesis of NPs

      3. Applications in the Food Industry

      4. Toxicological Aspects

      5. Regulations

      6. Perspectives

      Index

      Copyright

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      This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

      Notices

      Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

      Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

      To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

      British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

      A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

      ISBN: 978-0-12-811441-4

      For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

      Publisher: Andre Gerhard Wolff

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      List of Contributors

      Samsul Alam,     Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology, Gurugram, Haryana, India

      María R. Ansorena

      National University of Mar del Plata

      National Research Council (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina

      Resat Apak,     Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey

      Kanza A. Awan,     University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

      Jesús F. Ayala-Zavala,     Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico

      José M. Barat,     Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain

      Adalberto Benavides-Mendoza,     Autonomous Agrarian University Antonio Narro, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

      Andrea Bernardos

      Universitat Politècnica de València

      CIBER of Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain

      Partha P. Biswas,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India

      Sutapa Bose,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India

      Masood S. Butt,     University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

      Marcelino Cabrera-De la Fuente,     Autonomous Agrarian University Antonio Narro, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

      Esra Capanoglu,     Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

      Candy Carranza-Alvarez,     Autonomous University of San Luis Potosi, San Luis, Mexico

      Maria L. Carrillo-Inungaray,     Autonomous University of San Luis Potosi, San Luis, Mexico

      Bananakere N. Chandrashekar,     South University of Science and Technology of China, Shenzhen, Guandong, China

      Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa,     Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

      Bhadrapura L. Dhananjaya,     Jain University, Bangalore, Karnataka, India

      Sharon Felix,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India

      Susana González-Morales,     Autonomous Agrarian University Antonio Narro, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu,     University Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Julide Hizal,     Yalova University, Yalova, Turkey

      Alina M. Holban,     University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Naoko Ikuta,     Kobe University, Kobe, Japan

      Krishnegowda Jagadish,     University of Mysore, Mysore, Karnataka, India

      Antonio Juárez-Maldonado,     Autonomous Agrarian University Antonio Narro, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

      Senem Kamiloglu,     Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

      Chandraprakash Khedkar,     Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences University, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

      Supriya Kumari,     Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology, Gurugram, Haryana, India

      Sophiya D. Lamabam,     Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India

      Ioannis L. Liakos,     Center for Micro-BioRobotics, Italian Institute of Technology, Pisa, Italy

      Norma E. Marcovich,     Institute of Material Science and Technology (INTEMA), CONICET, Mar del Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina

      Ramón Martínez-Máñez

      Universitat Politècnica de València

      CIBER of Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain

      Seiichi Matsugo,     Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan

      Julia Medrano-Macías,     Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, Mexico

      Etiele Greque de Morais,     Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

      Michele Greque de Morais,     Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

      Juliana Botelho Moreira,     Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

      Kishore K. Nair,     Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology, Gurugram, Haryana, India

      Gulay Ozkan,     Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

      Ami Patel,     Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy & Food Technology (MIDFT), Mehsana, Gujarat, India

      Falguni Patra,     Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy & Food Technology (MIDFT), Mehsana, Gujarat, India

      Édgar Pérez,     Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain

      Alejandra G. Ponce

      National University of Mar del Plata

      National Research Council (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina

      Vikash Prasad,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India

      Syed K. Raza,     Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology, Gurugram, Haryana, India

      Abigail Reyes-Munguia,     Autonomous University of San Luis Potosi, San Luis, Mexico

      Jose V. Ros-Lis,     Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain

      Holger Schmidt,     ABB AG, Mannheim, Germany

      Nihir Shah,     Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy & Food Technology (MIDFT), Mehsana, Gujarat, India

      Hafiz R. Sharif,     Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China

      Mian K. Sharif,     University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

      Yallappa Shiralgi,     Gokhale Centenary College, Vandige, Ankola, Karnataka, India

      Shashank Srikanta,     Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India

      Shivanna Srikantaswamy,     University of Mysore, Mysore, Karnataka, India

      Neha Srivastava,     Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology, Gurugram, Haryana, India

      Keiji Terao

      Kobe University

      CycloChem Bio Co., Ltd., Kobe, Japan

      Robert Thangjam,     Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India

      Jorge Antonio Trejo-Ramirez,     Autonomous University of San Luis Potosi, San Luis, Mexico

      Bruna da Silva Vaz,     Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

      Francisco J. Vázquez,     Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico

      Foreword

      In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

      The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

      Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

      Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng)

      Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials,

      Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest,

      Bucharest, Romania

      Series Preface

      The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

      Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

      While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

      Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

      Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

      Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

      Volume 4: Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

      Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

      Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

      Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

      Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

      Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

      Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

      Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome and Health

      Volume 12: Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

      Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

      Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry

      Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

      Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

      Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

      Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

      Volume 19: Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering

      Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

      The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

      All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

      This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Preface for Volume 12: Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

      The science and engineering of nanometer-size materials has the potential to revolutionize all the scientific and industrial fields, promoting innovation. In the food industry, nanotechnology applications refer to all industrial steps, including production, processing, storage, and commercialization. The most innovative and investigated applications of nanotechnology in food science aim to increase the flavor, ensure encapsulation and delivery of nutrients, introduce antibacterial nanoparticles into foods and packaging, shelf-life enhancement, contamination detection, improved food storage, tracking, tracing, and brand protection.

      Through nanoprocessing, numerous properties of food products can be changed and completely new particularities can be included. Changes in color, flavor, or sensory characteristics; modifications of the nutritional functionality; and removal of chemicals or pathogenic contaminants from foods are the most known approaches of food nanoprocessing. Also, the development of smart nanomaterials has led to the design of specialized packaging that is able to extend shelf life of foods due to high barrier packaging, improve food safety, alert consumers if food is/gets contaminated or spoiled, repair tears in packaging, and even release active nanoparticles or substances with preservative properties to extend the life of the packaged product. Food manipulation and commercialization has also benefited from the development of nanobarcodes, which are used for labeling, monitoring, and distribution of foods.

      Nanoencapsulation is a new, versatile, and highly investigated concept in food design. Through this approach, basic nutrients, food-derived compounds of pharmaceutic value, and supplements can be easily incorporated in specialized structures by various encapsulation techniques and released in a controlled and timely manner.

      This volume aims to bring together recent scientific and technical information regarding the progress and impact of nanoscience in the food industry.

      Volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from India, Mexico, China, Pakistan, Argentina, Germany, Italy, Romania, Spain, and Brazil.

      Selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food scientists, materials science researchers, biotechnologists, biochemists, engineers, and also any reader who is interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances regarding the impacts of nanotechnology in the food industry.

      Chapter 1 entitled Application of Nanotechnology in the Food Industry: Present Status and Future Prospects, prepared by Patel et al., summarizes the present status and future prospects in terms of overall potential applications and limitations of nanotechnology in the food industry.

      In Chapter 2, Nanotechnology: A Pioneering Rebellion for Food Diligence, Sharif et al. dissect recent research and regulations that are required to ensure safety and suitability of the nanoengineered food products. Also, this chapter deals with main directions developed by the application of nanotechnology in the food industry.

      Chapter 3, Implication of Nanoscience in the Food Processing and Agricultural Industries, written by Prasad et al., discusses advances made in food spoilage protection and early detection of contaminants using nanotechnology, and their implications in both food and agricultural sciences.

      Lamabam and Thangjam in Chapter 4, Progress and Challenges of Nanotechnology in Food Engineering, offer future prospects and describe the potential and documented risks associated with the applications of nanotechnology in the food industry.

      Ponce et al. in Chapter 5, Nanotechnology Trends in the Food Industry: Recent Developments, Risks, and Regulation, highlight the most important benefits due to the development of nanotechnological applications in the food industry. However, high-risk concerns are also associated with this technological progress.

      Chapter 6, Consumer’s Health and Regulatory Organizations, prepared by Liakos et al., discusses protocols and frameworks that regulate the use of nanotechnology in the food industry applications before they reach the market.

      In Chapter 7, Functionalized Silica Nanomaterials as a New Tool for New Industrial Applications, Ros-Lis et al., report diverse applications of silica-based nanomaterials relevant for the food industry. This book chapter reviews examples of nanogated silica materials and optoelectronic noses.

      Chapter 8, Ecofriendly Synthesis of Metal/Metal Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Application in Food Packaging and Food Preservation, prepared by Jagadish et al., reviews ecofriendly metal and metal oxide nanoparticles and their applications in the food industry in terms of food processing, packaging, sterilization/preservation, and quality control.

      Nair et al., in Chapter 9, Significance of Nanotechnology for Sensing, Estimation, Degradation, and Formulation of Agrochemicals, cover the recent progress in the development of agricultural nanotechnology for formulation, analysis, degradation, and decontamination of agrochemicals. This review also focuses on the toxicity of agricultural nanotechnology to plants and the ecosystem.

      Chapter 10, Nanometals as Promoters of Nutraceutical Quality in Crop Plants, written by Juárez-Maldonado et al., reveals the challenges of agricultural research to elucidate the effects of nanometals on crops, and also to understand their impacts on the soil, the environment, and animal and human health.

      Ozkan et al., in Chapter 11, Use of Nanotechnological Methods for the Analysis and Stability of Food Antioxidants, describe nanotechnological solutions to enhance the bioavailability of antioxidants or to achieve controlled release of food antioxidants during digestion.

      Chapter 12, Stabilized R-α-Lipoic Acid by Encapsulation Using Cyclodextrins, written by Ikuta et al., introduces the history of R-(+)-α-lipoic acid (RALA), and summarizes its chemical and biochemical characteristics, such as chirality, antioxidant activities, and metabolism. It seems that complex formation of RALA with cyclodextrins stabilizes and potentiates their effect.

      Schmidt in Chapter 13, Integrated Process Control for Result-Oriented Process Automation, shows the role of smart sensors and the opportunities for the integration of sensors into this kind of automation. Sensors that control the process and the result on a highly repeatable level are explained.

      Botelho Moreira et al., in Chapter 14, Electrospun Polymeric Nanofibers in Food Packaging, review the development of polymeric nanofibers that are capable of improving the barrier and antimicrobial properties of materials utilized in food packaging.

      Chapter 15, entitled Use of Nanoparticles in the Food Industry: Advances and Perspectives, prepared by Carrillo-Inungaray et al., presents the areas of food production process where nanotechnology can be employed, such as processing, packaging, safety, and development of functional foods. Also, future perspectives and novel trends are briefly reviewed.

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Chapter 1

      Application of Nanotechnology in the Food Industry: Present Status and Future Prospects

      Ami Patel*

      Falguni Patra*

      Nihir Shah*

      Chandraprakash Khedkar**

      *    Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy & Food Technology (MIDFT), Mehsana, Gujarat, India

      **    Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences University, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

      Abstract

      Nanotechnology deals with the design and development of organic and inorganic materials at the nanoscale, with tailor-made physical, chemical, and biological properties. Research in nanoscience has revealed potential applications in medical diagnostics and therapeutics for human beings and livestock animals. It has proved its value in molecular computing, energy production, and structural materials. Conversely, food nanotechnology is an emerging field, successfully employed in direct or packaged food products for food quality, food safety, food fortification, sensory improvement, shelf life extension, and food packaging. This novel technology can be applied in the food sector through nanosensors, tracking devices, targeted delivery of essential components, new product development, precision processing, smart packaging, and so on. Nanoscience primarily benefits the development of functional foods, nutraceuticals, standard milk, and other food products. However, several evidences revealed that nanoparticles can enter the food chain and may cause the buildup of toxic contaminants in the food system, which can have a negative influence on human health. This chapter will summarize the present status and future prospects of nanotechnology and its potential applications and limitations in the food industry.

      Keywords

      nanotechnology

      nanoparticles

      food packaging

      sensory attributes

      targeted delivery

      bioactive components

      nanosensors

      nanoemulsions

      pathogen detection

      1. Introduction

      Nanotechnology involves the design and development of organic and inorganic materials at the nano scale, with tailor-made physical, chemical, and biological properties. Essentially, when particle size is reduced below this threshold, the resulting material exhibits significantly different physical and chemical properties to that of macroscale materials composed of the same base substance. Over the last decade, research in the field of nanotechnology has expanded rapidly and revealed potential applications in medical therapeutics and diagnostics, molecular computing, energy production, and structural materials. Nanotechnology in the food industry is a swiftly emerging field having diverse applications in food analysis, food processing, and food packaging. As reported by Bernardes et al. (2014), the nanotechnology products market in the food industry has approached US $1 billion, most of this is in the field of nanoparticle coatings for packaging applications, health-promoting products, and beverages. The leading players in the world’s food industry, including Kraft, H.J. Heinz, Nestle, Altria, Unilever, and Hershey, are endowing heavily in the research and development of the application of nanotechnology into diverse types of food products including milk, vegetables, meat, fish, and bakery items.

      This novel technology has found its way into the food sector through nanosensors, tracking devices, targeted delivery of essential components, food safety, new product development, precision processing, smart packaging, and so on (Huang et al., 2010; Shukla, 2012). Indeed, very limited information is available on nanoscience applications in the dairy and food sector and scarce investigations have been performed but their outcomes are promising (Chaudhry et al., 2008; De Paz et al., 2012). Nanotechnology has been successfully employed on direct or packaged food products for food quality and food safety (detection of foodborne pathogens or toxic metabolites), food fortification (minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, and essential oils), sensory improvement (enhancement of flavor or color), shelf life extension, and antimicrobial food packaging.

      A survey conducted in 2013 revealed that there were about 818 foodborne disease outbreaks that resulted in 13,360 illnesses, 1,062 hospitalizations, and 16 deaths (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015). Among these outbreaks, from different food categories, the largest contribution was attributed to fish products (~50 outbreaks), followed by mollusks (23), chicken (21), and dairy products (21; with 17 due to unpasteurized dairy products). Conventional methods and molecular techniques routinely employed for the detection of foodborne pathogens or their toxic metabolites are time-consuming, laborious, and expensive compared to nanotechnology-based devices or methods, which have been found to be more rapid, accurate, and cost-effective. Nanotechnology-based techniques can detect foodborne pathogens at the various stages of food production and provides quick results (Bata-Vidács et al., 2013; Chaudhry et al., 2008). The application of this technology will benefit the development of functional foods subsequently followed by nutraceuticals, standard milk, and other food products (Duncan, 2011; GuhanNath et al., 2014). An account of a diverse field of applications of nanotechnology in the food sector is depicted in Fig. 1.1.

      Figure 1.1   Prospective Applications of Nanotechnology in Dairy and Food Products.

      This section briefly described various types of nanomaterials followed by the focus on the innovative approaches of nanotechnology in the food industry. Apart from the lavishing applications of nanoscience in this sector, the other major burning issue is its safety for the environment and human health. These issues are discussed in detail in Section 5.

      2. Classification of Nanomaterials

      Nanomaterials on which most of the research focus has been concentrated to date are normally powders that exhibit properties that are different from those obtained from the same chemical composition but with much larger particles. Nanomaterials are generally classified as follows: (1) nanoparticles, (2) nanoclays, (3) nanoemulsions, (4) nanolaminates, (5) nanocapsules, (6) nanofibers, (7) nanotubes, and so on, which can be synthesized by a number of methods and have many applications in the food sector. Based on the application, two different forms of nanofoods are observed: (1) food additives (nanoinside) and (2) food packaging (nanooutside) (Ranjan et al., 2014). Nanoscale food additives may be used to influence food product flavor, texture, nutrient composition, or shelf life, and even to detect microbial pathogens and offer functions, such as food quality indicators. In the case of food packaging, nanotechnologies are largely considered to improve food quality and shelf life. It can also be employed in encapsulation and delivery systems that carry, shield, and distribute functional components of foods to their specific target site. Some of these nanomaterials are discussed further.

      2.1. Biopolymeric Nanoparticles

      Nanometer-range particles can be formed using food-grade biopolymers namely, proteins or polysaccharides through self-association or aggregation or by inducing phase separation in mixed biopolymer systems. Polylactic acid and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) are common biodegradable nanoparticle regularly used to encapsulate and deliver drugs and micronutrients, such as iron, vitamins, and protein. It has been observed that for successful results polylactic acid requires an associative compound like polyethylene glycol, and the functional components can be encapsulated in nanoparticles and triggered to be released at a particular location (Ravichandran, 2010).

      2.2. Nanoemulsions

      Generally, a mixture of two or more liquids (such as oil and water) that do not easily combine is defined as an emulsion. Similar to this, nanoemulsion is an emulsion that contains the dispersed droplets having a diameter of 500 nm or less. Microfluidizers or high-pressure valve homogenizers often make emulsions with droplets of less than 100–500 nm diameters and within such droplets functional food ingredients can be incorporated (Ranjan et al., 2014).

      2.3. Nanoclay

      Nanoclay has a natural nanolayer structure, thus acting as a barrier for gas and moisture (Akbari et al., 2006; Ke and Yongping, 2005). Polystyrene, polyamides, polyolefins, polyurethane, nylons, and epoxy resins are examples of some polymers used in conjunction with nanoclay to produce nanoclay–polymer composites. These nanocomposites have a potential application in packaging for cheeses, confectioneries, processed meats, and cereal products (Cagri et al., 2004; Rhim, 2004). An additional application includes extrusion-coating for fruit juices and liquid dairy products, as well as coextrusion methods for the manufacture of bottles used for beer and related carbonated beverages (Akbari et al., 2006).

      2.4. Nanolaminates

      Nanotechnology offers a number of means for researchers to build novel laminate films suitable for use in the food industry. A simple nanolaminate consists of two or more layers of a material with nanometer dimensions that are physically or chemically bonded to each other. At present, edible nanolaminates are built from polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids (Ravichandran, 2010). Nanolaminates can provide more benefits over conventional packaging materials and have a number of vital applications in the food industry. They can be incorporated in the form of edible coatings and films on a wide variety of foods, such as vegetables, fruits, meats, candies, chocolate, and bakery products; such coatings or films might function as a barrier for moisture, gas, and lipids. Apart from this, nanolaminates can serve as carriers of functional components namely, flavors, colors, antimicrobial compounds, and antioxidants and they can improve the textural properties of various foods (Ranjan et al., 2014).

      2.5. Nanocapsules

      Nanoencapsulation involves the incorporation, absorption, or dispersion of bioactive compounds in small vesicles of nanodiameter size. Nanocapsules made up of lipid or natural polymers are the most studied and applied for diverse applications in food (Chen et al., 2006a,b) and the best known example is casein micelle (CM). The better bioadhesive capacity of a nanocapsule enables it to be retained for an extended time in the intestinal epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract. Nanocapsules can be incorporated in food products to improve their sensory properties without impairing their sensory attributes. Such nanostructures can be incorporated in solid foods, directly added into liquid substrates, or sprinkled on mucosal surfaces (Qureshi et al., 2012).

      2.6. Nanotubes

      Under appropriate conditions, several globular proteins can be made to self-assemble to form nanotubes, which are widely explored to assist in enzyme immobilization processes (Singh, 2016). α-Lactalbumin, a globular protein from milk, is the key protein used to form nanotubes. These nanostructures can withstand pasteurization conditions (72°C/40 s)—a feature that makes it a potential encapsulating agent (Gouin, 2004).

      2.7. Nanofibers

      Nanofibers are fabricated through electrospinning technology wherein a solution is allowed to pass through a spinneret with a small capillary orifice where a strong electric field is applied to produce thin, solid polymer strand nanofibers. Their diameters may range from 10 to 1000 nm, which makes them ideal for serving as a platform for bacterial cultures, as well as a structural matrix for artificial foods (Shukla, 2012). Since nanofibers are usually not composed of food-grade substances, they only have limited applications in the food sector as known so far (Shukla, 2012).

      3. Current and Prospective Applications of Nanotechnology in the Food Sector

      Nanotechnology or nanomaterials can be employed at the different phases of food production, such as processing, packaging and labeling, transportation, or during tracing of the food in question, that is, postproduction quality checks. It can be used as a constructive part of instruments dealing with processing of nanomaterials, or the whole operative process can be nanotechnology-driven. Generally, nanoparticles are used in the form of nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, or nanocomposites in foods.

      In the food sector, the earliest commercial application of nanotechnology is considered to be in food packaging. Extending the keeping quality of food products using packaging materials that can gradually liberate antimicrobial compounds or control air and moisture exchange with the environment can be done by employing nanotechnology (Duncan, 2011). If nanoparticles are built within the packaging systems, they can play a vital role in ensuring the extended shelf life and microbial safety of food products.

      According to a survey, about 400–500 nanopackaged food products are estimated to be in commercial use, and it is predicted that within the next decade nanotechnology will be utilized in the manufacture of about 25% of all food packaging (GuhanNath et al., 2014). The major applications of nanobased techniques are discussed in this section.

      3.1. Food Packaging for Preservation of Food Products

      The main difficulty associated with the preservation of foods is the widespread production, use, and misuse of antibiotics, which emerged with multiple drug-resistant organisms, particularly of the infectious type. The utilization of nanomaterials with antimicrobial activity has been offered as a new defense against multiple drug-resistant infectious organisms (Bata-Vidács et al., 2013). Instead of interfering with a particular biochemical process like what conventional antibiotics do, nanoparticles are likely to interrupt multiple processes in microbial cells in a less specific manner. An interesting application of nanotechnology is its antimicrobial action against spoilage-causing and foodborne microbial pathogens. Nanoenabled food packaging is one of the most primitive commercial applications of nanotechnology in the food sector. In 2013, the global nanoenabled packaging market in the food and beverage industry was worth $6.5 billion and is anticipated to increase at a CAGR of 12.7% from 2014 to 2020, to reach an estimated value of $15 billion in 2020 (http://www.persistencemarketresearch.com/mediarelease/nano-enabled-packaging-market.asp). The innovative research trend of food packaging aided with nanotechnology is depicted in Fig. 1.2.

      Figure 1.2   The Research Trends of Food Packaging With the Help of Nanotechnology. Ranjan, S., Dasgupta, N., Chakraborty, A.R., Samuel, S.M., Ramalingam, C., et al., 2014. Nanoscience and nanotechnologies in food industries, opportunities and research trends. J. Nanopart. Res. 16, 2464.

      Nanoscale materials possessing antimicrobial properties include nanoparticles based on silver oxide (Ag2O), titanium dioxide (TiO2), magnesium oxide (MgO), copper and copper oxide (CuO), zinc oxide (ZnO), cadmium selenide/telluride, chitosan, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) (Cioffi et al., 2005; Emamifar et al., 2011; Stoimenov et al., 2002; Tan et al., 2013; Yoon et al., 2007). Among these, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are the most potent broad spectrum antimicrobials (Duncan, 2011). According to Han and Li (2008), common antibiotics eradicate only 5–6 disease-causing microbial pathogens, while silver molecules can kill more than 650 pathogens in 6 min of contact.

      Functionalized lysozyme-coated polystyrene nanoparticles with selective antibodies were observed to have bactericidal action against Listeria monocytogenes (Yang et al., 2007a). In another experiment, Bi et al. (2011) demonstrated that natural phytoglycogen nanoparticles also possess superior antimicrobial activity against L. monocytogenes when employed with the bacteriocin, nisin.

      Metal oxide nanoparticles, particularly TiO2 and Ag2O, exhibited significant antibacterial activity. Furthermore, they were also effective against eukaryotic infectious agents (Allahverdiyev et al., 2014). AgNPs can be prepared by simple green synthesis method using Plectranthus amboinicus leaf extract, which acts as reducing and capping agents. Morphological studies showed the formation of nearly spherical nanoparticles. In disc diffusion method, the synthesized AgNPs demonstrated better antimicrobial property toward Escherichia coli and Penicillium spp. as compared to other tested microorganisms (Ajitha et al., 2014).

      Nanoencapsulation offers one of the most attractive methods that can be used to apply antimicrobial activity in specific fluid products. Compared with conventional delivery methods, nanoencapsulation was found to improve the rate of inhibition and retains the effectiveness of antimicrobial properties for extended periods. The antibacterial activity of nisin-loaded chitosan/carageenan nanocapsules showed better antibacterial effect against Salmonella enterica, Enterobactor aerogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Micrococcus luteus through in vitro tests. Furthermore, in tomato juice samples, similar effects were observed for longer periods (6 months) in contrast to the components evaluated separately (Chopra et al., 2014). Nanoencapsulated benzoic acid in PLGA particles showed inhibition of Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens (including L. monocytogenes, E. coli, and Salmonella typhimurium) in raw and cooked chicken meat systems (Ravichandran et al., 2011). For S. typhimurium, nanoparticle delivery of benzoic acid resulted in 1.0 and 1.6 logCFU/g reductions, while for L. monocytogenes 1.1 and 3.2 logCFU/g reductions were found compared to 1.2 logCFU/g without nanoparticles during storage of 9 and 14 days, respectively.

      In another investigation, Donsì et al. (2011) noticed that incorporation of nanometric-encapsulated essential oils enhanced their antimicrobial effect in fruit juices, with minimum impact on the quality attributes of the finished products. In another investigation, addition to the culture medium of nanoparticles of magnesium, iron, and zinc in a concentration of 0.01% not only sustained the antagonistic activity of lactic acid bacteria against pathogenic microorganisms but also increased it in some cases (Zhanara et al., 2015).

      Outcomes of such investigations are suggestive of the efficacy of phenolics as natural and safer compounds against foodborne pathogens through nanotechnology and reveal their prospective food safety applications at a commercial level (Nasr, 2015).

      A small amount of oxygen present inside packaged food can lead to the deterioration of the stored product due to oxidation of fats and oils collectively with activities of microorganisms. Development of rancidity, souring, gassiness, discoloration, off-flavors and bad odors, and changes in the body texture are major consequences linked with the existence of oxygen inside packages. In this context, several studies have reported the incorporation of nanoparticles within packaging films or material (Chawengkijwanich and Hayata, 2008; Gu et al., 2003; Li et al., 2009; Wu et al., 2010) and some of them are presented in Table 1.1. Based on nanotechnology approaches Rivett and Speer (2009) successfully built an oxygen-scavenging film (Fig. 1.3) with good interplay to control the transmission of oxygen and aroma affecting enzymes in the packaging films.

      Table 1.1

      Figure 1.3   Nanofilms for Detecting the Level of Oxygen in Food Packages.

      Oxygen concentration of ≤0.1% → indicated in the left (pink in the web version); oxygen concentration of ≥0.5% indicated in the right (blue in the web version). Rivett, J., Speer, D.V., 2009. Oxygen scavenging film with good interplay adhesion. US Patent 75,141,512.

      Making use of the electrospinning technique, Kriegel et al. (2009) developed a process to make chitin-based biodegradable green food packaging. In that study, the lobster shell’s chitin was dissolved by electrospinning to yield a solvent, which was subsequently used to produce nanoslim fiber spin, possessing strong antimicrobial spectrum.

      Overall, the application of nanocomposites in food packaging seems to expand the use of edible and biodegradable films, with a reduction of packaging waste associated with processed foods and maintaining the preservation of fresh foods by extending their shelf life.

      3.2. Nanosensors in Quality Control and Quality Assurance of Food Products

      One of the potential applications of nanotechnology is in the detection of microbial contaminants (viruses and bacteria) and chemical contaminants in the food system. The process of food quality control analysis in the food industry is always time-consuming, costly, laborious, and requires a skilled person to do the analyses. Innovative devices and techniques are being developed to facilitate the preparation of samples and their precise and inexpensive analysis. The biosensor is one of such vital devices being employed to detect various biomolecules and chemical contaminants in diverse substrates. Lazcka et al. (2007) defined biosensors as analytical devices incorporating a biological material (tissue, microorganism, cell receptor, enzymes, nucleic acids, and antibodies), a biologically derived material (recombinant antibodies proteins, engineered proteins, and aptamer), or a biomimetic (synthetic catalyst, combinatorial ligand, and imprinted polymers) intimately associated with or integrated within a physicochemical transducer or transducing microsystem, which may be optical, electrical, or mass based. From this point of view, the development of nanosensors to detect microorganisms and contaminants is a particularly promising application in food biotechnology (Mendoza-Madrigal et al., 2015). Fig. 1.4 represents schematics of nanobiosensor components consisting of different bioreceptors.

      Figure 1.4   Schematic Representation of Nanobiosensor Components.

      It consists of different bioreceptors (e.g., antibodies, aptamers, cell-surface molecules, enzymes, oligonucleotide probes, and phages) and major transducers depending on types of signal response (i.e., optical, electrochemical, and mechanical signal). Output can be displayed as UV–visible or photoluminescence spectra and magnetic resonance images. Koedrith, P., Thasiphu, T., Weon, J., Boonprasert, R., Tuitemwong, K., Tuitemwong, P., 2015. Recent trends in rapid environmental monitoring of pathogens and toxicants: potential of nanoparticle-based biosensor and applications. Sci. World J. 2015,1–12.

      The working principle of some nanosensors is as simple as a specific protein of a well-recognized and characterized microorganism (majority from bacterium) set on a silicon chip, which can bind with specific microorganism (bacteria) present in the food sample. In most of the methods, a nanosized light scattering detectable by investigation of digital images is obtained. Based on this principle, Horner et al. (2006) combined reflective interferometry and nanotechnology to detect E. coli in food samples. Traditional microbiological tests based on microbial cultures are time-consuming and requires a skilled person; however, a biosensor with fluorescent dye particles attached to antibodies on a silicon/gold nanoarray proved to be more rapid and precise for the detection of microbial pathogens and/or their toxins.

      Numerous nanotechnology-based biosensors have been developed for specific applications in microbial analysis, such as the detection of specific bacterial species, bacterial biofilm formation, and the development of microbial inhibition tests. It is noteworthy that methods applied for the detection of foodborne pathogens, as well as spoilage-causing organisms should be rapid, reliable, and highly sensitive. Recent advances in nanomaterials have encouraged universal research to focus on their potential applications for bioanalysis. The conjugation of nanomaterials with biomolecules provides a base for the generation of novel nanobiorecognition devices (Bata-Vidács et al., 2013). For precise recognition between target microbial cells and biofunctionalized nanomaterials, a number of strategies including the specific reactions between adhesion–receptor, antigen–antibody, and toxin or antibiotic and complementary DNA sequence have been discovered. Incorporation of such biofunctionalized nanomaterials into current microbial detection techniques has led to quick, sensitive, and nearly real-time detection of microbial cells. It also allows concurrent detection of multiple microorganisms from various food products, biofilms, or liquid and solid culture media (Yang et al., 2008).

      Nanotechnology captured the attention of researchers through the use of nanosensors and biochips in the food safety and quality assurance programs in the early 2000s (Vo-Dinh et al., 2001). Ruengruglikit et al. (2004) developed a very sensitive nanosensor to detect gases released by foods and stages of food spoilage; a simple color change was able to indicate whether the food product was fresh or not. Later on, Neethirajan et al. (2009) developed nanosensors for grain quality monitoring to detect volatiles spoilage and analyses based on conducting polymer nanoparticles. Mihindukulasuriya and Lim (2014) developed a smart/intelligent packaging system to improve the communication feature of the package; the response generated owing to changes related with intrinsic and extrinsic factors is recorded through a specific sensor in this device. During the last few years, a range of different types of nanosensors has also been developed to detect bacterial pathogens in foods, which is illustrated in Table 1.2.

      Table 1.2

      BoNT/A, BoNT/B, Botulinum neurotoxins type A and B, CNTs, carbon nanotubes, QD, quantum dots.

      To detect major food pathogens and/or toxic metabolites, different nanosensors containing metallic nanoparticles, carbon nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), or cadmium-based quantum dots (QDs) have been utilized by researchers; some of them are briefly discussed in the following section.

      The unique electronic properties of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) can also be used for electrochemical signal amplification. Moreover, the manufacturing of electrodes implementing AuNPs functionalized with antibodies has noticeably enhanced the selectivity, as well as sensitivity of diverse electrochemical methods (Zhu et al., 2014). For instance, Tseng et al. (2012) reported a mass spectrometry-based immunosensor for E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and S. enterica using antibody-conjugated AuNPs. On the other hand, MNPs or magnetic beads, principally iron oxides (Fe3O4), have also attracted noteworthy attention in the bioanalytical and biomedical fields. The unique properties of MNPs allow them to get easily separated or enriched from complicated matrices by simply applying a magnetic field. It is believed that such methods will facilitate the enrichment of bacterial toxins at small concentrations from complex food matrices. Sung et al. (2013) developed novel antibody/AuNP/MNPs nanocomposites for immunomagnetic separation and rapid colorimetric detection of Staph. aureus in milk.

      During food analysis, nanotechnology can also be applied to detect fairly low amounts of toxic microbial metabolites. For instance, about 100–200 ng of thermostable enterotoxins (A, B, C, D, and E) produced by Staph. aureus is sufficient to cause toxic infection. A test has been developed for the detection of Staph. aureus based on the use of magnetic beads, which can detect most Staph. aureus strains at a very low viable cell population by making use of nanotechnology (Alfadul and Elneshwy, 2010). Similar results were also obtained for other pathogens like L. monocytogenes and E. coli O157:H7. Furthermore, with the help of nanotechnology, a competitive ELISA test using a 96-well screen-printed microplate for an immunosensor array has been developed for the detection of aflatoxin (AFB1), produced by the mold Aspergillus. This innovative technique clubs the highly discriminatory immunoanalysis with the ease of electrochemical probes and the speed of multisample analysis (Piermarini et al., 2007). In summary, nanotechnology can enhance the safety of manufacturing, processing, and transport of milk and food products through sensors for the detection of microbial contaminants and pathogens.

      Cadmium-based QDs are semiconductor nanocrystals that have shown numerous advantages compared to the usual chemical fluorescent dyes and proteins including broad excitation spectra, high quantum yield, and high photostability (Algar et al., 2010). Warner et al. (2009) developed a fluorescent sandwich immunoassay for botulinum neurotoxin serotype A (BoNT/A) quantification and applied high affinity antibodies functionalized with QDs for detection. Several studies also showed higher sensitivity and accuracy for the detection of bacterial pathogens and/or their toxins using QDs (Esteve-Turrillas and Abad-Fuentes, 2013; Feng et al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2011). Based on functionalized QDs coupled with immunomagnetic separation, Zhao et al. (2009) carried out simultaneous detection of foodborne pathogens (S. typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and E. coli O157:H7) in milk and apple juice. Combining biology and nanoscale technology in the construction of sensors would reduce response-time to sense or detect a potential hazard.

      Carbon nanomaterials are environmentally friendly and have good biocompatibility compared to metal-derived nanomaterials (such as AuNPs, AgNPs) or cadmium-based QDs (Bhunia et al., 2013). They have a wide range of applications from drug delivery to biosensing because of their distinctive optical and electrical properties (Zhu et al., 2014). CNTs, graphene, fullerenes, carbon dots, and carbon nanofibers are examples of the most common carbon nanomaterials that find use in nanotechnology-based sensors employed for the detection of microbial pathogens or their metabolites in dairy and food samples. Zhao et al. (2013) utilized a graphene and multienzyme-functionalized carbon nanosphere-based electrochemical immunosensor, while Shi et al. (2012) constructed a graphene oxide–based biosensor together with fluorescence resonance energy transfer for the detection of microcystins. CNTs have been directly used for the label-free detection of epsilon toxin from Clostridium perfringens and were able to detect even 2 nM of the toxin (Palaniappan et al., 2013). CNTs tailored with plastic antibodies and peptides were developed for microcystins and anthrax PA toxin detection, respectively (Queirós et al., 2013; Tran Ngoc et al., 2011).

      3.3. Application of Nanotechnology in Nutraceuticals

      The application of nanoscience in the nutraceutical field mainly involves the delivery of bioactive compounds and health-giving bacteria known as probiotics, which is briefly discussed in the following sections.

      3.3.1. Delivery of bioactive components

      Increasing information on the link between human health and diet has generated awareness in people and has attracted researchers to develop a new category of foods called functional foods. Foods or components, which may provide health benefits beyond nutrition, are defined as functional food. According to one survey, the functional foods sector of the food industry is estimated to be worth about $168 billion and is rising at about 9% per annum (Bigliardi and Galati, 2013; Euromonitor International, 2010).

      Nanoscience has the potential to provide innovative ways in the growth of functional foods, especially in the inclusion of bioactive components to improve the uptake of certain components without affecting the sensory perception of the consumer (Shukla, 2012). Several nutrients (such as minerals, vitamins, and growth factors), bioactive ingredients (such as omega-3 fatty acids and dietary fibers), and phytochemicals (such as phytosterols and flavonoids) can be packed into biocompatible and biodegradable nanoparticles. It is believed that the nanometer-sized delivery systems provide more surface area than the micrometer-sized systems formed by conventional microencapsulation methods; thus, these systems may improve solubility and bioavailability with controlled release and enable better precision targeting of entrapped compounds on appropriate sites (Singh, 2016). It is likely that nanoparticles will be designed with different surface properties and deliver active compounds directly to suitable sites through the careful selection of the molecular components. These delivery systems are generally built from nanosized natural biopolymers, such as polysaccharides, peptides, or lipid monomers (Chen et al., 2006a,b; Singh, 2016).

      Apart from bioactive components, nanotech-based drug delivery systems used to treat several health illnesses have also gained much attention in recent years. According to a report of the consulting firm Cientifica, the global market for nanotech-enabled drug delivery therapeutics is set to grow from the current value of $2.3 billion to $136 billion by the year 2021 (Cientifica Report, 2016). A number of nutraceuticals and nutritional supplements are available in the market. Almost all of these products allege improved absorption and bioavailability in the body due to nanosized ingredients. Some good examples of these are shown in Table 1.3.

      Table 1.3

      Al-Moahmmedawi (2016) developed a nanoformulation containing an antibiotic cephotaxime with nanoparticles preformulated using different concentrations of polycaprolactone and polyvinyl alcohol as coating material and prepared using the double emulsion solvent evaporation method. The author reported enhanced encapsulation efficiency of nanoparticles with increase in concentration of the polymer.

      Making use of modified n-octenyl succinate starch, β-carotene was encapsulated in nanosuspensions, which resulted in enhanced dispersability, bioavailability, and coloring strength (De Paz et al., 2012). Milk protein casein was employed to formulate nanosized micelles by Semo et al. (2007) and used to deliver susceptible health-improving ingredients like vitamin D2. Several studies have demonstrated improved bioavailability of nanoparticle encapsulated lycopene in jam, tomato juice, and pasta sauce (Auweter et al., 1999).

      Gaysinsky et al. (2005) demonstrated increased antimicrobial activity of encapsulated essential oils (i.e., eugenol and carvacrol) in nanometric surfactant micelles. However, the incorporation of micelle-encapsulated eugenol to milk appeared to be less or as effective as unencapsulated eugenol (Gaysinsky et al., 2007). In a separate experiment, two essential oils, terpenes mixture and d-limonene in nanometric delivery systems for incorporation into fruit juices were carried out to improve their antimicrobial activity with minimum impact on the quality attributes of the finished product (Donsì et al., 2011). It was observed that for the terpenes mixture, lecithin-based nanoemulsion exhibited a highly efficient carrier system while for d-limonene it modified starch and soy lecithin.

      Sahlan and Pramadewi (2012) isolated nanoencapsulated flavonoids from Phaleria macrocarpa leaf by CM. The encapsulation capacity of the CM was about 1 mg flavonoids per gram CM and this nanoformulation has an encapsulation efficiency of about 42%. CM is able to

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