Celts: The History and Legacy of One of the Oldest Cultures in Europe

INTRODUCTION

The Celts are a mysterious people whose history is shrouded in myth and misinformation. The latter stems largely from the fact that many of the Celtic people were opponents of the Roman Empire, and of course it was the victors that wrote the history books. Thus much of what we know about the Celts is distorted by Roman misunderstanding or misrepresentation, further coloured by later generations’ veneration of Rome.

The fashion for all things classical in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries led to the widespread belief that Ancient Greece and Rome were the source of all cultural virtue, and thus by definition the ‘barbarians’ that opposed these civilizations were filthy, uncultured savages who needed saving from themselves at the point of a sword. The image put forward in Roman writings is one of bringing the light of civilization to the dark and savage corners of the world, and since much of what Celts might have recorded about themselves was destroyed in the process this concept became the widely accepted version of events.

Celts spread across Europe from the Atlantic coasts to the Danube basin, and even into Asia Minor. Over such a large area, regional variations in their culture were inevitable, but a distinctive ‘Celticness’ can still be discerned.

On the mainland of Europe, Celtic society was absorbed into the Roman Empire and changed enormously, while in the British Isles there were other influences that caused the Celts to change over time. Much of what we know about the Celts has been pieced together from fragmentary evidence or biased accounts, but one truth has emerged: they were anything but uncivilized.

Although today’s popular view of the Celts is still influenced by the version accepted in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, we are beginning to understand these people a lot better, and to realize just how influential they were upon the course of European history. This is hardly surprising – the Celts were a widespread and numerous people who settled in much of Europe and the British Isles.

Early interactions between Celts and Romans had profound consequences for the future of Europe. Had relations not broken down, leading to the sacking of Rome, history might have taken a very different course.

Small wonder, then, that as the Roman Republic expanded its sphere of influence it came into contact with Celtic people. Relations were sometimes good, sometimes less so. It was a Celtic army that sacked Rome around 390 BCE, leading to a military revolution that ultimately created the all-conquering legions. It was Celts, usually referred to as Gauls by the Romans, who provided much of the resistance to Roman expansion in Europe. Without proud Gallic warriors on the opposing side, the glory of Rome might have shone less brightly. After all, glory is won by defeating worthy opponents… and the Celts certainly were that.

Survival of the Celts

The culture of the European Gauls was largely absorbed into that of the Roman Empire, and some elements were distorted or destroyed. However, this was a two-way street to some extent, and Celtic influences did find their way into the Roman culture. In areas that were less thoroughly Romanized, or which were not conquered at all, the Celtic way of life survived and was melded with other cultures. While the tongue of the Roman Empire, Latin, is a dead language, some Celtic languages are still spoken today.

The Roman Empire did not reach Ireland, and attempts to push into Scotland were fought to a standstill until the Empire ceased to expand. Tribes in the border region traded with Rome, generally via Roman Britain, and absorbed some elements of Roman culture while remaining independent. Beyond this border zone the Roman influence was much less, and Celtic society continued as it had for generations before.

The Celtic languages live on mainly in Scotland and Ireland, with significant numbers of speakers in Canada and some cities of the USA. They are minority tongues, but proudly clung to by their speakers as a symbol of independence and an honourable heritage.

The Celtic Cross is an important symbol of early Christianity. Once they adopted the new religion, the Celts were instrumental in spreading it, and in so doing helped shape the development of the early Church.

Although the Celtic languages are diminishing, some elements of Celtic society have found their way into the mainstream of modern culture. Traditional folklore and even everyday practices have in some cases come from the Celtic people. It is possible that the habit of throwing coins into a fountain or pool for good luck is derived from a Celtic ritual, or from an even earlier era. Some traditional monsters and otherworldly spirits also bear a distinct resemblance to those of Celtic mythology.

Many place names in Europe are Celtic in origin, and have been inhabited since the heyday of Celtic culture. Often, once a settlement’s pattern has been established it survives through subsequent rebuilding, with the general layout of streets and squares remaining roughly the same from the Iron Age. Thus in some towns and cities we can today walk the same paths as our ancestors, stopping to browse the wares of a market that has been held in the same square for hundreds of years. In wilder places, fragments of Celtic society still remain in the form of standing stones and monuments of long-ago forgotten events.

The Spread of Christianity

The Celts were also heavily influential in the spread of the Christian Church, and elements of their complex and fascinating mythology found their way into European Christian practice. It is easy to think of the Church as a monolithic structure whose ways are the same everywhere, but visiting a few old churches soon reveals that religion, like everything else, was heavily influenced by the characteristics of the people who first practised it.

Celtic designs and motifs are often found in churches, gravestones and monuments. These are the same symbols as were used by the pagan Celts, now co-opted by Christianity and part of its traditions. Similarly, once the Celtic people had adopted Christianity, they were enthusiastic in practising and spreading it to others. Many of the great religious figures during the early spread of Christianity came from Ireland and other Celtic regions.

Celtic zeal for Christianity took some believers very far from home. When Norse explorers discovered Iceland, they found a small community of Irish monks already living there. Upon realizing that the Vikings were moving in next door these monks, probably wisely, decamped. Their presence in Iceland is perhaps more remarkable than the arrival of the Norsemen; the latter were in the habit of sending out raiding and trading expeditions, and explored distant waters to find new lands. A land mass as big as Iceland was bound to be spotted sooner or later.

For a small group of monks to find Iceland and set up a community there represented far more individual effort than an entire culture of explorers eventually stumbling upon a large island. The colony on Iceland was a significant achievement, for all that it was eventually abandoned. Certainly the Celtic Christians put a lot of effort into their religious endeavours, and thus helped shape the future of the northern European Church.

This bronze-faced shield was found in the River Thames, London, where its wooden backing had rotted away leaving only the highly decorated front. It is likely that the shield was thrown into the river as a religious offering.

Traders and Craftsmen

The Celts were also great traders. Goods have been found in remote parts of Scotland that originated on the Continent and were bought as part of a continuous trade network. The image of filthy barbarians in their squalid huts is at least challenged, if indeed it is not shattered, by the knowledge that these ‘barbarians’ were trading for decorative goods from half a continent away, and making both functional and beautiful items for use and trade.

The Celts were great workers of metal, producing high-quality weapons and armour as well as decorative items of silver and gold. They were also excellent weavers, using sophisticated machinery to produce clothing that was more than merely functional. This level of economic activity was made possible by a stable society with laws and social rules that were enforced upon those that did not want to observe them.

Despite the success of Celtic society, much of what we know today has had to be pieced together from fragmentary or unreliable sources. Few of the Celts’ own records survive, and accounts left by Greek and Roman scholars are – deliberately or otherwise – misleading in places. This may be partially a result of what amounts to propaganda, and partly because the scholars did not understand Celtic society.

Having seen the Celtic way of life only from the outside and on a fragmentary basis, Roman scholars were not in a position to write in an informed manner. Not only had they not experienced the Celtic way of life, but they also tended to see only those groups that were in contact or conflict with Rome. The inner workings of Celtic society were probably a mystery to their chroniclers, who made guesses or simply recorded what little they knew for certain.

The Broch of Gurness in the Orkney Isles was constructed between 500 BCE and 200 BCE and is the best preserved of all Iron Age Broch villages. The settlement consisted of a central tower (Broch) and several dwellings, all surrounded by a system of defensive ditches.

Other evidence comes from archaeology, which has its own problems. We can know for sure that a sword buried with a Celtic chieftain was made in a certain manner, but we cannot do more than speculate about the details of his life. We can examine the clothing and shoes that have been found at archaeological sites, but the people who wore them cannot tell us what it was like to live their lives. Thus much of what we ‘know’ about the Celts is in fact inferred rather than known for certain.

‘MUCH OF WHAT WE KNOW TODAY HAS HAD TO BE PIECED TOGETHER FROM FRAGMENTARY SOURCES.’

Much can be determined from building techniques and materials, and from the layout of houses and settlements, and a combination of common sense and archaeological expertise allows us to draw what are probably good conclusions from the things that have been found. But ultimately any reconstruction of an ancient society is based on what seems likely rather than what actually was. There is no way around this; our knowledge is built up of inferences based upon facts and cross-referenced wherever possible, but it remains a picture assembled from fragments of a jigsaw puzzle… and we cannot be certain that all of the fragments are from the same puzzle.

An Expansive Culture

Any study of the Celts is made more complex by the fact that their culture was spread over a great expanse of Europe and existed for centuries. During this time great events unfolded and changed all of the civilizations that were exposed to them. Thus statements that apply to one group of Celts at one time in one place may not be relevant elsewhere or at another time. Studies are often defined by the archaeological site with which they are connected. Different sites give snapshots of Celtic culture in that location, and through the similarities between these we can infer some underlying principles of the Celtic culture as a whole.

It is perhaps fitting that the Celts are so difficult to figure out; they were a complex and diverse people whose influence helped determine the course of European history and still has relevance today.

The distinctive straw-thatched Celtic round house may seem primitive compared to Roman villas and Greek temples of the same era, but it was well-constructed, weatherproof and durable. It could be built or repaired with natural materials obtained locally.

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WHO WERE THE CELTS?

Looking back into history, we need to compartmentalize events and eras in order to make sense of them. Thus we try to create neat blocks of history built around clearly defined protagonists.

This is necessary to avoid information overload, and there are so many exceptions, special cases and complex situations that it is impossible to perceive the norm. As a result, many people know a few simple facts about the Celts and their society, and it is possible to assume that this is the whole truth. The reality, however, was anything but simple or clear-cut.

The question of who the Celts were is far more complex than at first it might appear. The name conjures up an image of a redhaired warrior people, whose men sported impressive moustaches and whose women were strong and somewhat formidable. They were the enemies of Rome, the builders of strange carved-stone monuments and worshippers of spirits that have remained part of popular folklore ever since. They were also instrumental in spreading Christianity throughout much of Europe.

We know that the Celts were excellent workers of metal, fearsome warriors and capable of producing colourful, finely made clothing. They lived in round houses or hill-forts, and were organized into tribes that often warred among themselves. Yet much of this common perception is so general as to be virtually meaningless, and in some cases it is inaccurate or misleading. This is hardly surprising; when trying to encapsulate a culture that covered most of Europe and existed for centuries, a few sentences can give only the broadest of indications. As we begin to focus on the details of Celtic society, apparent contradictions begin to manifest themselves.

The popular image of the Celts is one of ‘noble barbarians’ who sported fearsome moustaches and loved to fight. This is only one small part of the story, however; the Celts were a complex and sophisticated people.

This, too, is only natural. The Celtic people of the British Isles or those that settled in what is now Turkey were subject to different cultural influences than those of Iberia and Gaul. The Celtic people of 800 BCE, at the beginning of the Iron Age, were different to those that spread Christianity after the fall of Rome. Such a vast expanse of distance and time is bound to encompass large changes in culture and society; what is surprising is not so much the similarities that remain as the fact that Celtic society remains recognizable as such throughout.

Defining Celtic History

Many cultures have a distinct start and end date, albeit one imposed by historians long after the fact. Usually there is an event that can be pegged as the start or the end of an era, such as the fall of a city or the rise of a new society. This is true of some segments of the Celtic world, but the Celts were so widespread that although distinctly Celtic society ended in some areas at a certain date, it continued elsewhere.

In truth, although it is possible to estimate a start date, there is no clearly defined end to the ‘Celtic Era’. The Celtic people were marginalized or subsumed in some areas, and in others their identity was gradually absorbed into a new culture. Yet elements of Celtic society still exist today in the form of languages still spoken and popular folklore that is still repeated. The Celts did not come to an end; they evolved as societies always do. This process is still going on today, and it was happening throughout the era in which Celtic societies were dominant in Europe.

The hill fort at Maiden Castle is one of the largest Iron Age fortifications ever discovered. Its complex system of banks and ditches dates from the La Tène period (around 450 BCE); before this the fort was significantly smaller and less well defended.

People in the past did not live in a clearly defined era; they lived in a time they called ‘now’. This era was subject to constant – if often slow – changes in culture, language and relations with other groups. Society might evolve slowly or be wracked by catastrophe and rapidly changed as a result. Different cultures and various genetic groups met and mingled, affecting and influencing one another. The result was continual change, and it is only by focusing tightly on a specific place and time that we can obtain a clear snapshot of what life was like in that particular ‘now’.

As soon as the focus is expanded, in terms of both time and place, we must begin to generalize based on observed trends and situations that existed sufficiently long or in enough areas to be considered the norm. The more precise a detail, the more likely it is to belong only to a specific moment in time at a given place. That said, we can create some good working generalizations from our observations of the Celts, and so long as these are not taken to be the definite truth everywhere at every time, they will suffice for most purposes.

First Impressions

Around 400 BCE, a large group of ‘barbarians’ became known to the inhabitants of northern Italy. They were tall, fair- or red-haired people with loud voices, and they were sufficiently warlike to drive the local people, the Etruscans, from at least part of their lands. This brought the new arrivals to the attention of Rome, which was at that time only beginning its rise to greatness.

Around 400 BCE, a force of citizen-soldiers from Rome was decisively defeated at the River Allia by the Senones, a Celtic tribe. This was the beginning of an era of war between the Celts and the rising power of Rome.

Roman chroniclers found much to write about the new arrivals. Their clothing, consisting of a shirt and trousers with a cloak over the top, was well made and of bright colours, and their practice of spiking their hair with a mixture of lime and water gave these ‘barbarians’ a dramatically fierce appearance. This was compounded by an array of notable moustaches.

The newcomers were of impressive physical build and some were armoured with helmets and body protection. Others apparently chose to go into combat naked. Either way these were very powerful warriors and the Etruscans were soon pushed out of the Po Valley. They asked for help from their Roman neighbours, who sent envoys to the new arrivals.

Negotiations between the Roman envoys and the Celtic ‘barbarians’ were initially conducted in an atmosphere of mutual respect. The Celts recognized that if the Etruscans looked to Rome for military assistance, then Rome was clearly powerful. An agreement was plainly preferable to war, so the Celts offered what amounted to a land-for-peace deal. The Roman envoys challenged this on the grounds that it amounted to military extortion, but the Celtic point of view was clear – they had the might to make it happen, so they had the right to do it.

The Romans decided to assist their Etruscan neighbours, earning the enmity of the Celts who demanded justice for their slain warriors. Since the envoys were powerful in Roman politics, this was refused. Indeed, instead of being punished for breaking the ‘law of nations’ by taking sides after declaring neutrality as envoys, the perpetrators were promoted to high office.

The Senones were able to force Rome to the